Front Behav Neurosci. 2015 Meyi 19; 9: 128. doi: 10.3389 / fnbeh.2015.00128. eCollection 2015.
Andreatta M1, Pauli P1.
Kudalirika
M'makhalidwe achikale, chosakondera choyambirira (chosakondera choyambirira, CS) chimalumikizidwa ndi chochitika chofunikira kwambiri (chosalimbikitsa, US), chomwe chitha kukhala chowawa (chosinthira) kapena chakudya (chisangalalo). Pambuyo pa mayanjano ochepa, CS imatha kuyambitsa mayankho oteteza kapena omaliza, motsatana. Mosiyana ndi chikhalidwe chobwezeretsa, kukhutira ndi chidwi sikufufuzidwa kawirikawiri mwa anthu, ngakhale kufunikira kwake kwamakhalidwe abwinobwino komanso amisala (mwachitsanzo, kunenepa kwambiri, kuledzera) sikungatsutsike. Kafukufuku wapano akufuna kutanthauzira zomwe nyama yapeza pazokhutiritsa kwa anthu omwe amagwiritsa ntchito chakudya ngati US. Ophunzira makumi atatu ndi atatu adafufuzidwa pakati pa 8 ndi 10 m'mawa popanda chakudya cham'mawa kuti awatsimikizire kuti akumva njala. Pakati pazigawo ziwiri zogula, mawonekedwe amodzi (avCS +) adaneneratu za US (magetsi opweteka), mawonekedwe ena (appCS +) adaneneratu za US wosakondera (chokoleti kapena mchere wamchere malinga ndi zomwe ophunzira akutenga), ndi mawonekedwe achitatu (CS- ) sananeneratu za US. Potha, mawonekedwe atatuwa kuphatikiza mawonekedwe atsopano (NEW) adawonetsedwanso popanda kutumiza ku US. Kuwerengera kwa ma Valence ndi ziwonetsero komanso mayankho okhumudwitsa komanso oyendetsa khungu (SCR) adasonkhanitsidwa ngati magawo ophunzirira. Tidapeza zinthu zabwino zosinthasintha komanso zosangalatsa. Kumbali imodzi, avCS + idavoteledwa ngati yoyipa komanso yodzutsa chidwi kuposa CS- ndipo idapangitsa chidwi champhamvu ndikulimbikitsidwa kwa SCR. Kumbali inayi, appCS + idavoteledwa kuti ndi yabwino kuposa CS- ndipo idapangitsa kuti muchepetse chidwi ndi SCR yayikulu. Mwachidule, tidatsimikiza bwino zomwe nyama zapeza mwa anthu (anjala) powonetsa chidwi chofuna kuphunzira komanso kuphunzira mobwerezabwereza.
Introduction
Kuneneratu za chiwopsezo ndi chakudya ndikofunikira kwambiri kuti chamoyo chilichonse chipulumuke. Pazikhalidwe zakale (Pavlov, 1927), cue isanachitike chochitika cham'mbuyo, monga kugwedeza kwamphamvu pamagetsi (chidwi chosagwedeza, US), kapena chochitika, monga pellet ya chakudya (US), kangapo. Pambuyo pake, izi zolimbikitsa zokha (zomwe tsopano zalembedwa kuti CS, CS +) zimatha kuyambitsa mayankho odziteteza kapena otsutsa, motero. Mtundu wakale wamaphunziro oyanjana umatchedwa kutiwosinthasintha, pomwe wotsirizawo umatchedwa wokongoletsa.
Ngakhale kulosera zamasewera olimbitsa thupi ndikofunikira kuti kupulumuke monga kuneneratu zochitika zakubwera, chidwi chamtsogolo sichimafufuzidwa modzabwitsa mu zinyama (Bouton ndi Peck, 1989; Koch et al., 1996; McDannald et al., 2011, kuti muwone Martin-Soelch et al., 2007) komanso mwa anthu (Klucken et al., 2009, 2013; Austin ndi Duka, 2010; Delgado et al., 2011; Levy ndi Glimcher, 2011). Kuperewera kwa kafukufukuyu mwina kumachitika chifukwa cha zovuta za paradigm yolimbitsa thupi poyerekeza ndi yotsutsa. Mwachitsanzo, chakudya monga cholimbikitsira choyambirira chimayenera kuperekedwa pamene chamoyo chili ndi njala kuti chipindule (pakuwunika kwaposachedwa Dickinson ndi Balleine, 1994; Clark et al., 2012). Pazofufuza zamunthu, zovuta izi zathetsedwa pogwiritsa ntchito ndalama (Austin ndi Duka, 2010; Delgado et al., 2011; Levy ndi Glimcher, 2011kapena zithunzi zolaula (Klucken et al., 2009, 2013). Komabe, kafukufuku wofufuza wa neuro adanenanso kuti zofunikira (monga, zokhwasula-khwasula kapena zakumwa) ndi sekondale (mwachitsanzo, ndalama) othandizira amayambitsa zochitika zina zodziwika bwino (mwachitsanzo, striatum) komanso zimaphatikizira ndi mitundu yosiyanitsa (Delgado et al., 2011; Levy ndi Glimcher, 2011).
Pazidziwitso zathu, owerengeka owerengeka okha omwe adawunikira zotsatira za kulimbitsa thupi koyamba ngati kununkhira (Gottfried et al., 2002), madzi (Kumar et al., 2008), kapena chakudya (Prevost et al., 2012). Phunziro loyamba, Gottfried et al. (2002) Nkhope zosagwirizana ndi ndale (CSs) zokhala ndi fungo losasangalatsa, losangalatsa, kapena lonyoza. Chochititsa chidwi, adapeza kutsegulika kwakukulu mu orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) komanso m'malo ochezera poyankha pulogalamu yolimbitsa thupi CS + vs CS yotsutsa. Iwo adatsimikiza kuti OFC imayendetsa phindu la fungo ndipo ikuphatikiza kusinthitsa mtengo wogwirizana kuchokera ku olfactory (US) kupita ku kawonedwe (CS). The (ventro) striatal activation yatanthauziridwa kuti ikuwonetsa kuwonetsa chidwi kwa CR komwe kumapangitsa chidwi cha CS +. Phunziro lachiwiri, Kumar et al. (2008) adayitanitsa omwe adatenga nawo gawo (oyendetsa bwino komanso odwala omwe ali ndi nkhawa yayikulu) mu labotale m'mawa ndikuwapempha kuti asamamwe usiku kuti awonetsetse kuti ali ndi ludzu lisanachitike. Zithunzi zoyipa zinali ma CSs ndi 0.1 ml yamadzi aku US. Chosangalatsa ndichakuti, mwa zina zoyambitsa, ochita nawo masewera athanzi (koma osati okhumudwa) adawonetsa kuyambitsa kwakukulu mu stralatum yothandizira pulogalamu ya CS +, ndikuwonetsa kuti kukondoweza kunachitika. Phunziro lachitatu, Prévost et al. (2012) adawonetsanso zithunzi zophulika ngati ma CS komanso zopatsa zakudya zokoma kapena zamchere monga US malinga ndi zomwe ophunzira akutenga. CS idawonetsedwa ya 6 s ndipo mkati mwa mphindi yachiwiri yomaliza chithunzi chazakudya chidaperekedwanso. Nthawi zonse chithunzi chazakudya chimawonekera, woyesayo adayika chidutswa cha chakudya m'manja mwa omwe atenga nawo mbali, omwe amaloledwa kudya chotupacho nthawi yomweyo. Tsoka ilo, olembawo sananene kuti kutseguka kwa ubongo ku CS + yolakalaka panthawi yazoyeserera; komabe, adawona kuchepa kwamtima pang'ono kwa omwe adalipira CS + poyerekeza ndi omwe sanalandire mphotho ya CS-, kuwonetsa kusiyanasiyana kwamikhalidwe.
Kuperewera kwa maphunziro ogwiritsira ntchito poyambira ngati chisonyezero pakukonzekera kwamdabwitsaku ndikodabwitsadi, makamaka poganizira kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake kosinthasintha. Kuyankha koyamba ndi kuyankha modzikhulupirira komanso kodzitetezera ku zochitika zadzidzidzi, zosayembekezeka komanso zamphamvu (Koch, 1999). Kuyankha kodzitetezaku kumalumikizidwa ndi njira yosavuta ya neuronal yokhudzana ndi mizere ya cochlear mizu, kolumayi ya pudin pontine ya reticular mapangidwe (PnC) ndi spinal motoneurons (Fendt ndi Fanselow, 1999; Koch, 1999). Kafukufuku wa Zinyama adawulula kuti kuyambitsa chidwi mwakuthupi kumatengera kuchuluka kwa amygdala mpaka PnC (Fendt ndi Fanselow, 1999; Koch, 1999), pomwe chidwi kumata kumadalira mphamvu yolumikizira (NAcc, Koch, 1999). Kusinthasintha koteroko kogwira ntchito ndichinthu chothandiza pakutsimikizira kwa zomwe zakambidwazo. Chifukwa chake, kuthekera kwawonetsero kumakhala kopanda pake, pomwe kutsata kumawonetsera zabwino, zonse popanda kusunthidwa ndi njira zakuzindikira (Hamm ndi Weike, 2005; Andreatta et al., 2010). Pazidziwitso zathu, nyama imodzi yokha ndi yomwe yafufuza momwe angakhalire odyetsa mayeso ngati njira yodalira. Chosangalatsa ndichakuti makoswe omwe adayesedwawo adawonetsa kukonzekera kwa CS + (mwachitsanzo, kuwala) komwe kumalumikizidwa ndi kuperekedwa kwa yankho la sucrose. Makamaka, kulumikizidwa kotere kunali kosavomerezeka mu nyama zomwe zimakhala ndi zotupa za NAcc, koma osati zokhala ndi zotupa za amygdala, kutanthauza kuti NAcc imagwira nawo gawo limodzi pakupangitsa chidwi cha ma CR ndi kutsata mayankho oyenera (Koch et al., 1996).
Kafukufuku wapano ndikumudziwa kwathu koyambirira kutanthauzira paradigm yamtunduwu kwa anthu pogwiritsa ntchito othandizira oyambira ngati US, mwachitsanzo, okoma (chocolate Smarties®) kapena zakudya zamchere zamchere (zazing'ono zamchere), komanso kusintha modabwitsa ngati muyeso wa ma CR. Tinkayembekezera kuti pulogalamu ya AppCS + iyambitsa ma CRS amphamvu monga kuwonekera poyambira, kuwongolera kwa SCR, komanso kugogomezera koyenera poyerekeza ndi zoyambitsa zina, mwachitsanzo, avCS +, ndi CS-.
Zida ndi njira
ophunzira
Odzipereka makumi anayi mphambu awiri adavomera kutenga nawo mbali phunziroli ndipo adalandira mayikowo. Ophunzira asanu ndi anayi sanatengeredwe kuwunikirako, awiri chifukwa cha zovuta zaumisiri, atatu chifukwa adalembedwa kuti ndi osayankha (amatanthauza matalikidwe otalikirapo <5 μV), ndipo anayi chifukwa sanawonetse mayankho okwanira pachikhalidwe chilichonse (zochepa = 2; za tsatanetsatane, onani Zipangizo ndi Njira). Mapeto ake, omwe akutenga nawo gawo 33 adawalingalira pakuwunika (amuna 16; zaka zakubadwa: zaka 22.09, SD: 2.84; osiyanasiyana: zaka za 18-29). Ophunzira anayi sanali Achijeremani enieni, ndipo asanu ndi mmodzi anali amanzere. Mmodzi mwa omwe sanatenge nawo gawo sanadziwe zakomwe mabungwe a CSs-USs adayesa (onani Procedure), koma tidasankha kuti tisatenge nawo mbali chifukwa mayankho ake anali abwinobwino ndipo sanakhudze zotsatira zake.
zipangizo
Stimuli (US)
Mitundu iwiri ya US idagwiritsidwa ntchito. Monga US yodutsa, tidagwiritsa ntchito magetsi pang'ono pang'ono pamafelemu osagwirizana ndi otenga nawo mbali. Kugwedezeka kwamagetsi kunaperekedwa kudzera pama elekitirodi awiri okhala ndi mulifupi wa 9 mm ndi kutalikirana kwa 30 cm. Mphamvu yamagetsi yokhala ndi zolimbikitsira zamkati zomwe zimachitika pafupipafupi ndi 50 Hz komanso kutalika kwa 200 ms, yopangidwa ndi chowonjezera (Digitimer DS7A, Digitimer Ltd, Welwyn Garden City, UK, 400 V, kuchuluka kwa 9.99 mA). Kukula kwa kugwedezeka kwamagetsi kunatsimikiziridwa payekhapayekha kudzera m'njira yofotokozedwera kale (Andreatta et al., 2010). Mwachidule, otenga nawo mbali adakumana ndi kukwera ndi kutsika mwamphamvu motalikirana kwa 0.5 mA. Anayenera kuwerengera chilimbikitso chilichonse pamawonekedwe kuchokera ku 0 (samamva kalikonse) mpaka 10 (kupweteka kwambiri) ndi 4 ngati nangula womangira (zowonekera chabe zowawa). Kukula kwa mphamvu yamagetsi kumapangitsa kuti 2.12 mA (SD = 0.56) ndipo idavotera ngati yowawa (M = 6.45, SD = 1.73). US wakondwere amakhala ndi chokoleti (cha Smarties)®) kapena mchere wochepa wamchere. Kusankhidwa kwa US wokonda kudya kumadalira kusankha kwa omwe akutenga nawo mbali monga amafotokozera poyankhulana koyambirira. Momwemonso, ophunzirawo adayenera kunena ngati amakonda kudya zamchere kapena zotsekemera pakudya m'mawa. Akhozanso kusankha mwaulere ngati angakonde chokoleti kapena mchere wamchere panthawi yoyesera yokha. Mapeto ake, 22 omwe adatenga nawo mbali adasankha chokoletiyo ndi 11 kanyumba kakang'ono kamchere.
Stimuli (CS) Yokhala
Maonekedwe a geometrical (lalikulu buluu, bwalo wachikasu, makona atatu obiriwira, hexagon ofiira) okhala ndi diagonal ya 8 masentimita anaperekedwa ngati ma CS. Zithunzithunzi zidawonetsedwa pakati pazenera lakuda la 8 s. Mawonekedwe amodzi (avCS +) nthawi zonse amagwirizanitsidwa ndi US wosazungulira (mawonekedwe owopsa amagetsi), mawonekedwe amodzi (appCS +) nthawi zonse amagwirizanitsidwa ndi US (chokoleti kapena mchere wamchere), mawonekedwe amodzi (CS-) sanagwirizane ndi mwina wotsutsa kapena ma US omwe ali ndi chidwi, ndipo mawonekedwe achinayi (Chatsopano) adawonetsedwa mu gawo loti ziwonongeke koma osati panthawi yogula kuti atsimikizire kusalowerera kwawo.
Zoyambitsa Probe
Phokoso loyera la 103 dB lokhala ndi 50 ms lidagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati kafukufuku wofulumira. Zokondweretsazo zidawonetsedwa mozungulira pamutu pamutu ndipo zidachitika mosasintha 4-6 s mawonekedwe atayamba.
Mayankho
Asanayesepo komanso atatha kuyeserera, ophunzirawo adayenera kulemba zolemba za Germany-Trait Anxcare Inventory (STAI), Laux et al., 1981) ndi dongosolo la Positive Negative Afitive schedule (PANAS, Krohne et al., 1996). STAI ndi mndandanda wofufuza momwe ophunzira akutenga nawo mbali komanso / kapena nkhawa zamaboma ndipo ili ndi zinthu 20 pamikhalidwe ndi maboma. Nkhawa za ophunzira kale (M = 37.06, SD = 7.80) ndi pambuyo (M = 39.33, SD = 9.16) kuyesaku sikunasinthe kwenikweni [t(32) = 1.61, p = 0.117]. Kuchuluka kwa nkhawa pamachitidwe omwe ali pakati pa 20 ndi 58 (M = 36.6, SD = 8.98), yomwe ikufanana ndi akulu omwe adasindikizidwa (Laux et al., 1981). PANAS (Krohne et al., 1996) ndi mndandanda wazosangalatsa komanso zosalimbikitsa. Anthu omwe ali ndi zochuluka pazabwino amakhudza kwambiri (PAS) amakonda kutengeka mtima monga chidwi, pomwe anthu omwe ali ndi zambiri pazovuta zomwe zimakhudza sikelo (NAS) amakonda kukhumudwa. Chilichonse chimakhala ndi chiganizo, ndipo omwe akutenga nawo mbali akuwonetsa pamlingo kuyambira 1 (pang'ono pang'ono) mpaka 5 (kwambiri) momwe omasulirawo akuwonetsera malingaliro awo panthawiyi. Palibe kusiyana kwakukulu komwe kwapezeka pazomwe ophunzira akutenga nawo mbali pazoyeserera [yambani: M = 11.67, SD = 2.29; TSIRIZA: M = 12.88, SD = 4.69; t(32) = 1.55, p = 0.130]. Mwanjira, otenga nawo mbali anasintha kwambiri momwe anali kukhalira kuyambira pa chiyambi (M = 26.72, SD = 4.70) mpaka kumapeto (M = 23.66, SD = 7.02) pa zoyeserazi [t(31) = 3.11, p = 0.004]. Kuchepa kwamaganizidwe a omwe atenga nawo mbali mwina kukadakhala kokhudzana ndi kusasangalatsa kwa paradigm (kugwedezeka kwamagetsi kowawa komanso phokoso loyera labwera).
Kayendesedwe
Atafika ku labotale, ophunzirawo anawerenga ndikusainira fomu yovomerezeka yovomerezeka ndi komiti yoona zamalamulo ku Department of Psychology ya University of Würzburg. Sanadziwitsidwe za zovuta pakati pa ma CSs ndi ma US. Pambuyo podzaza mafunso, ma elekitirodi adalumikizidwa ndipo njira yolowera ululu idachitidwa monga tafotokozera pamwambapa.
pa gawo lanyumba, mawonekedwe anayi a mawonekedwe a geometrical adawonetsedwa kawiri ndi gawo loyeserera (ITI) losiyana pakati pa 18 ndi 25 s (kutanthauza: 21.5 s). Palibe kafukufuku waku US kapena wodabwitsanso yemwe adatumizidwa mgawoli.
Gawo lisanapezeke, maulendo asanu ndi awiri a phokoso loyera adaperekedwa XXUMX-7 s kuti achepetse kuyambiranso koyambirira.
Otsatirawa awiri magawo azopeza zinali zofanana (Chithunzi 1). Gawo lililonse lopeza linali ndi mayesero a 24: mayesero a 8 CS-, mayesero a 8 avCS +, ndi mayesero a 8 appCS +. Mndandanda wa CS unali pseudorandom ndi chiletso chokhacho popeza kuti zolimbikitsira zomwezi sizingaperekedwe kopitilira kawiri mzere. Mwatsatanetsatane, avCS + idaperekedwa limodzi ndikuwombera mphezi ngati chizindikiro cha kugwedezeka kwa magetsi ndipo US yopweteka idaperekedwa pamalowo. Pulogalamu ya AppCS + idawonetsedwa ndi chithunzi cha Smarties kapena prizel yamchere ndipo wochita nawo mbali amatha kusankha smarties kapena pretzel pamtsuko. CS- idaperekedwa limodzi ndi choletsa ndipo palibe US yomwe idaperekedwa. Pazaka zitatu za 8 CS zowonetsera zamtundu uliwonse, kafukufuku woyambitsa adapereka pakati pa 4 ndi 6 s pambuyo poyambitsa chidwi. Njira zitatu zowonjezera poyeserera zidaperekedwa nthawi ya ma ITI kuti zitsimikizire kusadalirika kwawo ndikuchepetsa malo okhala. ITI, yopanga chophimba chakuda, chosiyana pakati pa 18 ndi 25 s ndi njira ya 21.5 s.
CHITSANZO CHA 1
Chithunzi 1. Ziyeso pamigawo iwiri yagulidwe (A) ndi gawo lowonongeka (B). Ophunzira adadziwa kuti mawonekedwe amodzi (avCS +) adaneneratu kugwedeza kwamagetsi kofewa, mawonekedwe amodzi (appCS +) adaneneratu chidutswa cha chokoleti kapena pretzel yaying'ono yamchere (malinga ndi zomwe amakonda), ndi mawonekedwe atatu (CS-) sananeneratu chilichonse mwachilengedwe mochitika zochitika. Chilichonse chimaperekedwa molumikizana ndi chithunzi chosonyeza kugwedezeka kwamagetsi, ma smarties / mchere wokhala ndi mchere, kapena osatengera kalikonse kutengera kuyanjana ndi US. Panthawi yokutha, mawonekedwe atatu omwe anapangidwanso anapangidwanso, koma palibe ma US omwe anapulumutsidwa. Kuphatikiza apo, mawonekedwe anayi a geometrical mawonekedwe (NEW) adawonetsedwa ngati ulamuliro wosaloŵerera m'ndale.
pa gawo lotha, ophunzirawa adawona mawonekedwe atatu a majini (mwachitsanzo, avCS +, appCS +, ndi CS-) aphatikizanso mawonekedwe a ndale (NEW). Palibe a US omwe adatumizidwa ndipo mawonekedwe ake sanaperekedwe palimodzi ndi zithunzi zamaluso, chokoleti / masamba amchere, kapena ziletso. Chilimbikitso chilichonse chimaperekedwa kasanu ndi katatu mu dongosolo la pseudorandom (mwachitsanzo, kukondoweza komweku sikunaperekedwe kopitilira kawiri motsatana), ndikupanga mayesero a 32. Zoyambitsa zowoneka ngati zoyambira zinaperekedwa pa 4 kuchokera mu 8 zowonetsa za mtundu uliwonse wa CS. Monga momwe ziliri pakupezeka komanso gawo la malo, ma ITI anali osiyana pakati pa 18 ndi 25 s, ndi ma 4 maapozi owonjezera adatumizidwa mosasamala panthawi ya ITIs.
Pambuyo pagawo lirilonse, otenga nawo mbali adavota valence (zosangalatsa) ndi zokondweretsa (za chisangalalo) za ma CS omwe ali ndi masikelo analog (VAS) kuyambira 1 mpaka 9. Mulingo woyeserera wachokera ku "1" wosonyeza "chosasangalatsa kwambiri" kupita ku "9" kuwonetsa "chosangalatsa kwambiri;" sikelo yokoma yochokera ku "1" yowonetsa "bata" mpaka "9" yowonetsa "zosangalatsa". kuyesedwa pambuyo magawo awiri azinthu zopezeka ndi gawo la kutha. Ophunzira adawona mawonekedwe a geometrical a 1 s ndipo adayenera kuwonetsa ngati mawonekedwe awa adalumikizidwa ndi kusefukira kwamagetsi, ndi chokoleti / mchere wamchere, wopanda chilichonse, kapena ngati sanathe kuyanjana. Zowonjezera, onse ochita nawo gawo (kupatula m'modzi) adadziwa zadzidzidzi pambuyo pa Acquisition 2.
Kuchepetsa
Mayankho akuthupi adalembedwa ndi V-Amp 16 amplifier ndi Vision Recorder V-Amp Edition Software (Edition 1.03.0004, BrainProducts Inc., Munich, Germany). Muyeso wa zitsanzo za 1000 Hz ndi fyuluta ya 50 Hz notch. Zofufuza zomwe sizinachitike pa intaneti zidachitika ndi Brain Vision Analyzer (Version 2.0; BrainProducts Inc., Munich, Germany).
Kuyankha Kuyambitsa
Kuyankha koyamba kunayesedwa ndi electromyography (EMG) kumanzere orbicularis oculi minofu yokhala ndi ma Xrodot awiri a 5 mm Ag / AgCl. Malinga ndi malangizo (Blumenthal et al., 2005), electrode imodzi idayikidwa pansi pa mwana ndipo yachiwiri 1 masentimita pambuyo pake. Pansi ndi maelekitirodi a electrode adayikidwa kudzanja lamanzere ndi lamanzere, motsatana. Asanafike pama elekitirodi, khungu limatengedwa pang'ono ndikutsukidwa ndi mowa kuti lisungidwe pansi penitsulo 10 kΩ. Chizindikiro cha electromyographic chinali chosaseweredwa pa intaneti ndi 28 Hz low cutoff filter ndi 500 Hz high cutoff fyuluta. Kenako, chizindikiro cha EMG chidakonzedwanso ndipo kusuntha kwapakati pa 50 ms kudayikidwa. Tinagwiritsa ntchito 50 ms tisanayambitse mafunso oyambira ngati maziko (Grillon et al., 2006). Mayankho pamafunso oyambitsa anajambulidwa pamanja, ndipo mayesero okhala ndi zoyambira zazikulu kwambiri (± 5 μV) kapena zida zokumbira sanasiyidwe pakuwunika kwina. Mayankho oyambira otsika kuposa 5 μV adalembedwa ngati zero ndipo amawerengedwa kuti awoneke poyambira (Blumenthal et al., 2005). Ponseponse, mayesero a 10.4% adakanidwa, ndipo mayankho ochepa a 2 kuchokera pama 3 poyambira pamagawo azomwe amatenga ndi 4 kuchokera pamavuto a 8 poyambira pakutha kwa chikhalidwe chilichonse amafunika kuti aliyense azichita nawo pang'onopang'ono. Pazifukwa izi, ophunzira anayi sanatengedwe. Kutalika kwa nsonga kumafotokozedwa kuti ndiwokwera kwambiri poyerekeza ndi maziko a 20-120 ms time windows pambuyo poyambitsa chidwi. Zowerengeka zosaphika zidasinthidwa mwapakatikati mwa maphunziro z-scores ndi T-scores kuti muchepetse kusinthasintha kwa kusintha kwamunthu payekha ndikuwonetsetsa kuti njira zamaganizidwe. Zambiri za T zidawerengedwa pamavuto aliwonse (avCS +, appCS +, CS-, Chatsopano, ndi ITI). Kuti mufufuze zomwe zingayambitse kuyambitsa chidwi kapena zovuta, mayankho omwe amayankhidwa pa ITI adachotsedwa pamayankho oyambitsa pachikhalidwe chilichonse.
Kuyankha Khungu
Skin conductance reaction (SCR) idalembedwa pogwiritsa ntchito ma electrodes awiri a 5 mm Ag / AgCl omwe adayikidwa padzanja la dzanja lomwe sililamulira. Yankho la galvanic lidasefedwa ndi mkonzi wa 1 Hz high cutoff. SCR idafotokozedwa ngati kusiyana (mu μS) pakati poyambira poyambira (1-3 s pambuyo poyambitsa kupatsirana) ndi kuchuluka kwakuyankha (Tranel ndi Damasio, 1994; Delgado et al., 2011). Mayesero okhala ndi mayeso oyambitsa sanawunikidwe pakuwunika kwa SCR. Mayankho pansipa 0.02 μS anali atalemba ngati zero. Opitilira ena asanu sanatengedwe kusanthula kwa SCR chifukwa anali ndi tanthauzo la SCR kuposa 0.02 μS. Zomwe zimachitika pakhungu loyera zinali za muyezo wapakati ndipo zimasinthidwa kuti magawidwewo azigwiritsidwa ntchito m'njira zosiyanasiyana pazigawo ziwiri zamtunduwu (avCS +, appCS +, CS-) ndi gawo lazimiridwe (avCS +, appCS +, CS-, ndi NEW ).
Chiwerengero cha Kusanthula
Zotsatira zonse zidasinthidwa ndi SPSS ya Windows (Version 20.0, SPSS Inc.). Mwa mayankho azamoyo, magawidwe ophatikizidwa amitundu yosiyanasiyana (ANOVA) adawerengedwa magawo awiri apagawo ndi gawo la kutha. ANOVA yam'magawo azomwe anali nazo inali ndi chilimbikitso (avCS +, appCS +, CS-) ndi gawo (Acquisition 1, Acquisition 2) monga mkati mwa zinthu. ANOVA ya magawo okutha inali ndi zolimbikitsira zokha (avCS +, appCS +, CS-, Chatsopano) ngati chinthu chogwiritsa ntchito. Zotsatira zamkati, zopatsa chidwi, ndi zolemba mwadzidzidzi zidawunikidwa ndi ma ANOVA osiyana omwe ali ndi zinthu zomwe zimapangitsa mkati mwa zinthuzo (avCS +, appCS +, CS-, ndi NEW) ndi gawo. Izi zinali ndi magawo anayi a ma valence ndi ma ratousal ratings (T1: gawo lakhazikika, T2: pambuyo poyambira gawo loyamba, T3: itatha gawo lachigamulo lachiwiri, T4: itatha gawo lachiwonetsero), koma magawo atatu a migwirizano yazovuta (T1: pambuyo gawo logula koyamba, T2: itatha gawo lachiwiri lopeza, T3: pambuyo pakutha gawo).
Mulingo wa alpha (α) wakhazikitsidwa pa 0.05 pa kusanthula konse. Kukula kwa zotsatira kumanenedwa ngati pang'ono2.
Results
Valence ndi zokongoletsera zabwino za gawo lililonse zimawonetsedwa pa Chithunzi 2; mayankho odabwitsa ndi ma SCR akuwonetsedwa Chithunzi 3.
CHITSANZO CHA 2
Chithunzi 2. Mavoti a valence (A) komanso okondweretsa (B). Maina (okhala ndi zolakwika zofananira) amawonetsa matendawa atatha gawo logonera (T1), Acquisition 1 (T2), Acquisition 2 (T3), and the extinction phase (T4). CS yododometsa + (mzere wakuda wolimba) idapeza zoipitsitsa ndipo inali yokondweretsedwa magawo awiriwo atapezeka poyerekeza ndi CS- (mzere wakuda) ndi Watsopano (mzere wakuda). Ndikofunikira, CS + (yolimba imvi) idakhala yabwino poyerekeza ndi CS- ndi Chatsopano. *p <0.05, **p > 0.01, ***p <0.001.
CHITSANZO CHA 3
Chithunzi 3. Mayankho a Startle (A) ndi mawonekedwe a khungu (B) (okhala ndi zolakwika zofananira) pagawo loyamba lopeza (Acq1), gawo lachiwiri lopeza (Acq2), ndi gawo lotha (ext). Mayankho oyambira adakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi CS + (mzere wakuda wolimba) ndipo adakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi CSetet (mzere wolimba wamtundu) poyerekeza ndi CS- (mzere wakuda) pamigawo yopezeka. SCR inali yayikulu kwambiri kwa avCS + ndi appCS + poyerekeza ndi CS-. Palibe kusiyana komwe kunawululidwa panthawi ya kuwonongedwa. *p <0.05, **p > 0.01, ***p <0.001.
Zotsatira
Bungwe la ANOVA la Valence ratings panthawi ya kupeza zidawonetsa zofunika zazikulu zolimbikitsa [F(3, 93) = 17.26, GG-ε = 0.801, p <0.001, η pang'ono2 = 0.358] ndi gawo [F(3, 93) = 3.30, GG-ε = 0.731, p = 0.039, pang'ono pang'ono2 = 0.096] komanso kuyanjana kwakukulu pakati pa zolimbikitsa ndi gawo [F(9, 279) = 9.54, GG-ε = 0.463, p <0.001, η pang'ono2 = 0.235]. Londola t-Mayesedwe akuwonetsa kuti zigawo za mawonekedwe anayi am'mbuyomu poyeserera zinali zofanana (ps> 0.19), pomwe zonse ziwiri Kupeza 1 ndi Kupeza 2 avCS + idavoteledwa ngati yoyipa kwambiri ndipo appCS + ndiyabwino kwambiri. Makamaka, avCS + idavoteledwa ngati valenced poyerekeza ndi CS- [Acq1: t(31) = 2.34, p = 0.026; Acq2: t(31) = 3.07, p = 0.004], Chatsopano [Acq1: t(31) = 2.70, p = 0.011; Acq2: t(31) = 3.89, p <0.001], ndi appCS + [Acq1: t(31) = 5.41, p <0.001; Acq2: t(31) = 6.11, p <0.001]. AppCS + idavoteledwa ngati yabwino kwambiri kuposa CS- [Acq1: t(31) = 4.99, p <0.001; Acq2: t(31) = 5.31, p <0.001] ndi NEW [Acq1: t(31) = 4.92, p <0.001; Acq2: t(31) = 4.14, p <0.001]. Kusiyanitsa pakati pa CS- ndi NEW sikunali kofunikira (pS> 0.18).
Mwachidziwikire, palibe kusiyana kwakukulu komwe kunapezeka poyerekeza mavoti a valence a AppCS + omwe amaphatikizidwa ndi chokoleti vs mchere wamchere [Acq1: t(30) = 0.03, p = 0.477; Acq2: t(30) = 0.29, p = 0.775].
Pambuyo pakutha, gawo la avCS + lidali kuvoteledwa kukhala loyipa kwambiri poyerekeza ndi CS- [t(31) = 2.40, p = 0.023], Chatsopano [t(31) = 3.40, p = 0.002], ndi appCS + [t(31) = 3.35, p = 0.002]. M'malo mwake, kutchuka kwa appCS + sikunasiyanenso ndi CS- [t(31) = 1.77, p = 0.086] kapena chatsopano [t(31) = 1.07, p = 0.293].
Bungwe la ANOVA la makonda osangalatsa panthawi yopeza idawonetsa chofunikira chachikulu chotsatsira [F(3, 96) = 7.07, GG-ε = 0.737, p = 0.001, pang'ono pang'ono2 = 0.181], koma osati gawo [F(3, 96) = 1.27, GG-ε = 0.805, p = 0.289, pang'ono pang'ono2 = 0.038], ndi kulumikizana kwakukulu pakati pa zolimbikitsa ndi gawo [F(9, 288) = 4.53, GG-ε = 0.582, p = 0.001, pang'ono pang'ono2 = 0.124]. Londola t-ziyeso sizinawonetse kusiyana kwakukulu pakati pa zoyambitsidwa zokhudzana ndi ukwati wawo woyamba (pS> 0.74). Komabe, magawo awiriwa atapezedwa, avCS + idavoteledwa kwambiri kuposa NEW [Acq1: t(32) = 2.99, p = 0.005; Acq2: t(32) = 5.97, p <0.001] ndi appCS + [Acq1: t(32) = 2.62, p = 0.013; Acq2: t(32) = 4.42, p <0.001], ndikukweza pang'ono pang'ono kuposa CS- pambuyo gawo loyamba la kupeza [t(32) = 1.96, p = 0.058], koma kudutsa kwambiri gawo lachigawenga chachiwiri [t(32) = 3.65, p = 0.001]. Mosiyana ndi momwe maumboni amakondera, kukondwerera kwa AppCS + sikunasiyane ndi kukongola kwa CS- ndi Chatsopano (ps > 0.13) pambuyo pamagawo olandila.
Momwemonso ndi momwe ma valence alili, CS- ndi Chatsopano sizinasiyane pakukongola kwawo (pS> 0.07).
Monga momwe zidalili pa valence, palibe kusiyana komwe kunawululidwa chifukwa cha AppCS + yokhudzana ndi chokoleti ndi pulogalamu ya AppCS + yokhudzana ndi mchere wa prezel [Acq1: t(31) = 0.26, p = 0.797; Acq2: t(31) = 0.33, p = 0.724].
Pambuyo pakutha, palibe kusiyana kwakukulu pamalingaliro okongola omwe adawululidwa (pS> 0.08).
Zowonjezera Pambuyo pake-Kuyesa kufananiza masanjidwe ukatha gawo, gawo loyamba ndi lachiwiri logulira, ndi gawo lotha, onani Zida Zowonjezera.
Kuyankha Kuyambitsa
ANOVA yam'magawo azopeza idabweza zotsatira zoyambira [F(2, 64) = 49.92, GG-ε = 0.964, p <0.001, η pang'ono2 = 0.609], koma osati gawo [F(1, 32) = 3.16, p = 0.085, pang'ono pang'ono2 = 0.090], komanso kulumikizana kwakukulu kwa Stimulus × Phase [F(2, 64) = 3.37, GG-ε = 0.875, p = 0.048, pang'ono pang'ono2 = 0.095]. Londola t-Mayeso adawonetsa chidwi chachikulu ku avCS + poyerekeza ndi CS- panthawi yonse yoyamba [t(32) = 3.27, p = 0.003] ndi wachiwiri [t(32) = 4.00, p <0.001] magawo ogula. Mayankho a Startle ku avCS + nawonso atha kuthekera kwambiri poyerekeza ndi omwe anali ku appCS +, pambuyo pa Kupeza 1 konse [t(32) = 8.20, p <0.001] ndi Kupeza 2 [t(32) = 5.74, p <0.001]. Chofunika kwambiri, kukula kodabwitsa ku appCS + kunachepetsedwa kwambiri poyerekeza ndi CS- panthawi yonseyi Kupeza 1 [t(32) = 6.34, p <0.001] ndi Kupeza 2 [t(32) = 2.91, p = 0.007]. Mobwerezabwereza komanso mogwirizana ndi mavutowo, palibe mayankho oyipa omwe anaululidwa chifukwa cha AppCS + mukamakhudzana ndi chokoleti kapena ndi prezel yamchere [Acq1: t(31) = 1.04, p = 0.309; Acq2: t(31) = 0.07, p = 0.947]. Pakati pagawo lakutha, palibe zotsatira zazikulu zomwe zidapezeka [F(3, 96) = 0.26, GG-ε = 0.906, p = 0.833, pang'ono pang'ono2 = 0.008].
Kuyankha Khungu
Kuchokera ku ANOVAs kwa SCR panthawi ziwiri zotsata, zovuta zoyambira zimapangitsa [F(2, 54) = 18.04, GG-ε = 0.908, p <0.001, η pang'ono2 = 0.401] ndi gawo [F(1, 27) = 20.91, p <0.001, η pang'ono2 = 0.436] zidakhala zabwino, koma osati mgwirizano wawo [F(2, 54) = 0.68, GG-ε = 0.637, p = 0.451, pang'ono pang'ono2 = 0.024]. Post-hoc t-Mayesero akuwonetsedwa kwambiri SCR kwa avCS + [t(27) = 6.46, p <0.001] ndi ku appCS + [t(27) = 4.84, p <0.001] poyerekeza ndi CS-, pomwe ophunzira adawonetsa SCR yofananira ndi avCS + ndi appCS + [t(27) = 0.64, p = 0.527]. Zachidziwikire, palibe kusiyana kulikonse m'ma SCR ku chokoleti appCS + ndi mchere wa prezel appCS + adapezeka [Acq1: t(26) = 2.55, p = 0.120; Acq2: t(26) = 1.29, p = 0.210]. Monga zinaliri pamalingo ndi poyankha poyankha, palibe zotsatira zazikulu zomwe zapezeka pakutha kwa gawo [F(3, 81) = 0.28, GG-ε = 0.634, p = 0.743, pang'ono pang'ono2 = 0.010].
Kukambirana
Cholinga cha phunziroli chinali kutanthauzira zomwe anthu apeza kuchokera kwa anthu pogwiritsa ntchito paradigm yoyambira yamapulogalamu yoyambira yokhazikika ngati chosalimbikitsa (US). Kuti achite izi, otenga nawo mbali amabwera ku labu m'mawa popanda chakudya cham'mawa kuti atsimikizire kuti ali ndi njala, ndipo malinga ndi zomwe amakonda, zidutswa za chokoleti kapena zodzola mchere zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati ma US oyenera. Panthawi yogula, mawonekedwe amodzi a geometrical (avCS +) adalumikizidwa ndi kupweteka pang'ono kwa magetsi (USC), mawonekedwe ena (appCS +) ndi chidwi US, komanso mawonekedwe achitatu (CS-) opanda US okometsetsa komanso US yodutsa. Zotsatira zikuwonetsa kuyipidwa kokwanira komanso kosangalatsa pamawu omveka bwino (mwachitsanzo, malingaliro), pamlingo wokhazikika (mwachitsanzo, poyankha modzidzimutsa), komanso pamlingo wakuthupi (mwachitsanzo, SCR). Makamaka, avCS + poyerekeza ndi CS- idapangitsa kuti mavoti azikhala opanda pake, makulidwe okongola, chidwi modabwitsa, ndi SCR yayikulu. Chofunika koposa, ma pulogalamu a AppCS + poyerekeza ndi CS- adapangitsa kuti magawo azikhala bwino, chidwi, komanso SCR yayikulu. Zomwe tapeza pamayendedwe opatuka zinali zogwirizana ndi zomwe tikuyembekezera, popeza kafukufuku wapitawu adawona kuti chowopseza cholosera (avCS +) chikuvoteledwa ngati chothamangitsa, chimalimbikitsa mayankho owopsa, ndikuwonjezera kuyambiranso kwamthupi (Fendt ndi Fanselow, 1999; Hamm ndi Weike, 2005; Andreatta et al., 2010, 2013). Zotsatira zathu pazakudya zam'mimba zidagwiranso ntchito ndi maphunziro am'mbuyomu a anthu ndi zinyama zomwe zikuwonetsa kuti mphotho yolimbikitsira (appCS +) idavoteledwa ngati yabwino, imalepheretsa kuyankha, ndikuwonjezera zolimbitsa thupi (Koch et al., 1996; Gottfried et al., 2002; Kumar et al., 2008; Klucken et al., 2009, 2013; Austin ndi Duka, 2010; Prevost et al., 2012). Pazidziwitso zathu, aka ndi koyamba kuphunzira kuwonetsa modzidzimuka mwa anthu kutipatsa chiyembekezo cholosera mphotho yayikulu. Zofunikira, tidatha kusamutsa ndikutsimikizira zotsatira za kafukufuku wazinyama (Koch et al., 1996). Kafukufukuyu adawonetsa kuti kuyambitsa makoswe kutengera makoswe zimatengera kuchuluka kwa NAcc (gawo la ventral striatum) kupita ku PnC. Chifukwa chake, kuyambitsa koyamba mu kuphunzira kwathu kumatha kutanthauza zochitika za NAcc, zomwe zikugwirizana ndi zomwe zapezeka mu fMRI (Gottfried et al., 2002; Kumar et al., 2008; Klucken et al., 2009, 2013; Delgado et al., 2011; Levy ndi Glimcher, 2011). Chifukwa chake, tikumaliza kuti paradigm yathu yokonzekereratu idayenda bwino, monga momwe maumboni (omvekera) omvekera bwino komanso kutsimikizika (kotsimikizira kakhalira) kudawonekera.
Kuphatikiza pa izi zatsopano koma zomwe zitha kupezedwa, zotsatira zina ziwiri zosangalatsa zimayenera kutchulidwa. Choyamba, mayankho okhudzana ndi maubwenzi ndi akuthupi ku AppCS + omwe adasiyana. Chachiwiri, tidazindikira kuti ma CRS atha msanga poyerekeza ndi ma CR omwe sanasinthe.
SCR ikuwonetsa kuyambitsa kwachisoni, komwe kumakulitsidwa ku mphamvu zonse zolumikizana ndi mphotho (appCS +) ndi zolimbikitsa zotsutsana ndi chiwopsezo (avCS +). Zotsatira izi zikugwirizana ndi kafukufuku wakale wam'mbuyo, momwe zithunzi zosokoneza bongo zidagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati US wokondweretsa (Klucken et al., 2013), ndi kafukufuku wovumbulutsa SCR wofanizira ndi fanizo loneneratu za ndalama ndi fanizo loneneratu phokoso losokosera (Austin ndi Duka, 2010). Makamaka, SCR ndiyankho lolunjika lomwe likugwirizana ndi kuyambitsa kwachisoni. Kuyankha uku akuti akuwonetsa kukonzekera kachitidwe ka zochitika zadzidzidzi zadzidzidzi (Bradley, 2009). Kutengera izi, tikuganiza kuti zonse zomwe zimawopseza komanso phindu lomwe limayanjana ndi mphotho zidayambitsa kuyankha kwamachitidwe oyankha motsatizana. Mwanjira ina, chizindikiro cha chakudya ndi zopweteka zimayamba kukonzekera njira zopewa kupewa komanso kupewa. Mosiyana ndi kukweza kwambiri kwakuthupi, kuyankha kwamawu kunawonetsa kutsitsimutsa komwe kumayenderana ndi mphotho. Ndizotheka kuti mawu opatsa chidwi atha kukhala otengera chidwi ndi mawonekedwe okoma a US m'malo mochita kuchitika kwa thupi pa se. M'malo mwake, tikuganiza kuti appCS + vs. avCS + adavoteredwa ngati otsika vs. amakulitsa kwambiri chifukwa anali olumikizidwa ndi ma US otsika komanso owukitsa kwambiri, motsatana. Tsoka ilo, sitinatenge ziwonetsero zokongola za ma US, chifukwa chake zikhala mtsogolo kafukufuku kuti ayesere izi.
Pakati pakutha, palibe US amene adapulumutsidwa. Izi zitha kukhala kuti zidayambitsa kuphunzira kwatsopano kotchedwa kufafaniza (kuti tionenso mwachidule Milad ndi Quirk, 2012), ndi onse omwe amabwera ndi chidwi komanso chidwi cha ma CR sichikuchepa monga chotulukapo chake. Zowoneka, pamakhalidwe (mwachitsanzo, poyankha modabwitsa) komanso pamankhwala olimbitsa thupi (mwachitsanzo, SCR), osagwirizana ndi ma avCS +, appCS +, ndi CS- adadziwikanso. Momwemonso, chidwi chotsimikizika cha zoyesedwa zomwe zimayesedwa pambuyo pakutha kwa gawo zofanana pamlingo wotsika, ndikuwonetsa kuphunzira kopambana. Komabe, avCS + idavoteredwa moyipa kwambiri kuposa CS-, pomwe pulogalamu ya AppCS + siyidasiyanenso ndi CS- valence. Kuchepa pang'ono pang'onopang'ono kwa mayankho omwe akuwonetsa pang'onopang'ono atha kukhala chifukwa cha chisinthidwe chosinthika, kutanthauza kuti zizindikilo zomwe zimawopseza zimakhala zovuta kwambiri kuiwala chifukwa kusayang'ana chizindikiro chowopseza kungakhale pachiwopsezo cha moyo.
Funso limodzi likutsalirabe: nanga bwanji kuyankha koyamba (mwachitsanzo, valence) kumazimiriratu ndikutha? Choyamba, mayankho awa adawerengeredwa nthawi yonseyi ya gawo. Chifukwa chake, titha kuganiza kuti ma CRS amasankho akadali kupezeka mkati mwa mayeso oyambilira a gawo lotha. Mwanjira yofufuzira, tidatsata izi mopatsa chidwi ndikuyang'ana mayankho onse oyipa ndi SCR kudera lonse lakutha (onani Supplemental Material). Ngakhale sitinapeze kusiyana kwakukulu, tidawona kukula kwakukulu kwa ma avCS + poyerekeza ndi CS- ndi chidwi chowongolera. Tidawonanso chidwi chochulukirapo ndi pulogalamu ya AppCS + poyerekeza ndi CS- komanso buku lowongolera poyambira gawo lomaliza, lomwe, lidasowa patayesedwa pang'ono. SCR kupita ku pulogalamu ya AppCS + idagwa kale 2nd ikutha, pomwe SCR kupita ku avCS + idakhala yokwezeka pafupifupi pakutha konse poyerekeza ndi SCR kupita ku NEW. Ngakhale tikuyenera kutanthauzira izi mosamala kwambiri, mayankho odabwitsawa akuwoneka kuti akugwirizana ndi momwe zinthu ziliri. Kuphatikiza apo, mayankho onse odabwitsawa komanso ma SCR amathandiziranso lingaliro loti chisinthiko chidayambira.
Pomaliza, tiyenera kuvomereza zolephera zina za phunziroli. Choyamba, chifukwa cha vuto laukadaulo sitinathe kufotokoza zokongola (komanso zokongola) za chokoleti ndi mchere wa mchere. Komabe, ma CR omwe ali ndi chidwi chakuwonetsa kuti ophunzirawa adakumana ndi ma US awiriwo ngati ali ndi chidwi. Chachiwiri, nthawi ya obwerera m'mbuyo komanso chidwi cha US idasiyana kwambiri. Chifukwa chake, kugwedeza kwamoto kowawa kunaperekedwa pamalonda a avCS + ndikumakhala ndendende 200 ms, pomwe chokoleti ndi zonunkhira zamcherezi zimaperekedwa kwa omwe akuchita nawo gawo la 2 s pambuyo pa appCS + kuyambika, ndipo nthawiyo inali yosafotokozeredwa chifukwa idatengera momwe mwachangu munthu uja anadya. Kusankha kopereka ma US okondweretsedwa mwanjira imeneyi kunali kochokera pa kafukufuku wam'mbuyomu mwa anthu (Prevost et al., 2012). Komabe, zingakhale zotsogola kwambiri kuperekera chidwi ku US chofananira ndi US yodabwitsayo, monga sip ya juwisi kapena ginger ale pa pulogalamu ya AppCS +. Pofuna kulipirira kusiyana kwakukulu kwakukula kumeneku, tinapereka mawonekedwe a geometrical molumikizana ndi kukopa kowoneka kofananira ku US. Chachitatu, sitingafotokozeretu zokhazokha zoti mayankho ofulumira azinthu zithu zofunikira pakutha kwachitika chifukwa chazinthu zofunikira. M'malo mwake, zoyambitsa zowoneka mu gawoli sizinaperekedwe molumikizana ndi chizindikiro cha US monga momwe zinalili m'magawo azopezeka. Ndizotheka kuti kuwonetsedwa kwa ma CSs okha atha kukhala kuti adakhudza ma CRs ndipo pachifukwa chimenecho palibe kusiyana kwakukulu komwe kudawoneka panthawi yoyesedwa koyamba. Komabe, mayankho athu ozimitsa msanga ali mu mzere ndi mayankho omwe adazimitsidwa mu kafukufuku wam'mbuyomu momwe CS + (nkhope) idaperekedwera ikugwirizana ndi US (kufuula) panthawi yomwe idapezeka koma osati pakutha (Lissek et al., 2008).
Pomaliza, tinapeza mayankho oyenda bwino komanso osadukiza komanso chidwi chokhudzana ndi zoopseza komanso zolimbikitsidwa zokhudzana ndi mphotho. Chochititsa chidwi, mayankho omveka bwino (makulidwe) ndi mayankho omwe ali ofotokozera (oyamba modabwitsa) amagwira ntchito modododometsa, chifukwa chakuti AvCS + idanenedwa ngati yabwinobwino komanso yoyambitsa chidwi ndipo pulogalamu ya AppCS + idanenedwa ngati yabwino komanso yoyambitsa chidwi. Kuphatikiza apo, matchulidwe (omasulira) owoneka bwino (SCR) okhudzana ndi pulogalamu ya AppCS + atayanjana, kuwonetsa njira ziwiri zosiyana.
Kutsutsana kwa Chidwi
Olembawo akunena kuti kufufuza kunkachitika popanda mgwirizano uliwonse wa zamalonda kapena zachuma zomwe zingatengedwe kuti zingatheke kukangana.
Kuvomereza
Ntchitoyi idathandizidwa ndi Collaborative Research Center "Mantha, kuda nkhawa, ndi kuda nkhawa," SFB-TRR 58, projekiti B1.
Zowonjezera Zowonjezera
Zowonjezera Zowonjezera pa nkhaniyi zitha kupezeka pa intaneti pa: http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00128/abstract
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Mawu osakira: mawonekedwe apamwamba, mphotho, kulangidwa, chidwi cham'mbuyo, mayendedwe a khungu
Citation: Andreatta M ndi Pauli P (2015) Kulakalaka vs. Zowongolera zochitika mwa anthu. Kutsogolo. Behav. Neurosci. 9: 128. onetsani: 10.3389 / fnbeh.2015.00128
Zalandiridwa: 11 February 2015; Zavomerezedwa: 05 Meyi 2015;
Wolemba: 19 Meyi 2015.
Lolembedwa ndi:
Niels Birbaumer, University of Tuebingen, Germany
Kuwunikira by:
Tim Klucken, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany
Alessandro Angrilli, University of Padova, Italy
Copyright © 2015 Andreatta ndi Pauli. Ichi ndi nkhani yotseguka yotsegulidwa molingana ndi Malamulo a Creative Commons Licribution (CC BY). Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito, kufalitsa kapena kubereka m'mabwalo ena amavomerezedwa, kupatula ngati wolemba oyambirira kapena wothandizira chilolezo amavomerezedwa ndi kuti buku loyambirira m'magazini ino likutchulidwa, malinga ndi chizolowezi chophunzitsidwa. Palibe ntchito, kufalitsa kapena kubalana kumaloledwa zomwe sizikugwirizana ndi mawu awa.
* Makalata: Marta Andreatta, Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Marcusstraße 9-11, D-97070 Würzburg, Germany, [imelo ndiotetezedwa]