Kudalirika
Cholinga cha kuwunikaku chinali kukhazikitsa kafukufuku wopatsa chidwi yemwe adasindikizidwa m'magazini achi Chingerezi owunikiridwa ndi anzawo pakati pa 1995 ndi 2015 pakufalikira, kulosera zamtsogolo, komanso tanthauzo lakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata. Kafukufukuyu adawonetsa kuti achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula, koma kuchuluka kwake kumasiyana kwambiri. Achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi anali amuna, ali pachikulire kwambiri, ofuna chidwi, ndipo anali ndi mabanja ofooka kapena ovuta. Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kunkagwirizanitsidwa ndi malingaliro ogonana ololera ndipo kumalumikizidwa ndi zikhulupiriro zamphamvu zogonana. Zikuwonekeranso kuti ndizokhudzana ndi zochitika zogonana, zokumana nazo zambiri zakugonana, komanso zachiwerewere, pokhudzana ndi kuzunza komanso kuzunza. Zotsatira za kuwunikaku zikuyenera kuwonedwa potengera zolakwika zosiyanasiyana zamatekinoloje, komanso zotsutsana zingapo m'mabukuwa, zomwe zikulepheretsa lingaliro lomaliza lazomwe zimachitika pazakuwona zolaula pa achinyamata.
- PMID: 27105446
- DOI: 10.1080/00224499.2016.1143441
Chifukwa cha zovuta zolaula pa intaneti kwa achinyamata, komanso nkhawa zomwe zingakhale zovuta (monga Davis, 2012; Dombrowski, Gischlar, ndi Durst, 2007; Matebo, Larsson, Tydén, ndi Häggström-Nordin, 2013), Kafukufuku wokhudza kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata akuchulukirachulukira m'zaka zaposachedwa. Kuyambira 2005, zolemba zopitilira 65 zawonekera, ndizolemba zazikulu kwambiri za 11 mu 2011. Poyankha kuwonjezeka kwachangu kwa kafukufuku wokhudza achinyamata komanso zolaula, ofufuza angapo awunikiranso nkhaniyi (Bloom & Hagedorn, 2015; Dombrowski et al., 2007; Mwini, Behun, Manning, & Reid, 2012; Kutulutsa & Omar, 2013). Komabe, ndemanga zakhala zotsutsana ndi zotsutsana, makamaka za funso lakuti zolaula zimakhudzana ndi khalidwe la kugonana ndi achinyamata. Kumbali imodzi, Dombrowski et al. (2007, p. 155) ndi Owens et al. (2012, p. 116) adanena kuti, kupatula chiwawa chogonana, palibe zotsatira zomveka bwino za momwe zithunzi zolaula zimagwirizanirana ndi khalidwe la chiwerewere ndi khalidwe lawo. Komano, ndemanga ziwiri zatsopano za Bloom ndi Hagedorn (2015, p. 88) ndi Springate ndi Omar (2013, p. 470), yomwe inalembedwa ndi mabuku ang'onoang'ono kuposa Owens et al., Inanena kuti zolaula za achinyamata zimagwiritsidwa ntchito molakwika ndi malingaliro awo ndi makhalidwe awo.
Chifukwa cha zotsutsana izi m'makambirano omwe alipo kale pa zolaula ndi achinyamata, komanso kuwonjezeka kwa zofalitsa m'munda, ndemanga yowonongeka ikuwonekera nthawi ndi nthawi. Cholinga choyambirira cha ndemanga yathu ndi kupereka zochitika zambiri za zolemba zolaula ndi achinyamata kuyambira 1995 mpaka 2015. Mwachindunji, timayambiranso funso la kufalikira ndi kufotokoza kwa achinyamata kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula. Komanso, timayang'ana ngati komanso zolaula zimakhudzana bwanji ndi zikhulupiliro ndi zikhulupiliro za kugonana, kudzikonda, komanso kugonana. Tinasankha nthawi 1995 ku 2015 chifukwa kokha pakubwera kwa intaneti pakati pa 1990s kunali chidwi ndi achinyamata ndipo zolaula zimakula kwambiri. Mosiyana ndi ndemanga zisanayambe, timapereka mosamala njira zosonkhanitsira deta, kapangidwe ka phunziro, ndi sampuli. Malingaliro athu, munda wonsewo, komanso zotsatira zenizeni za maphunzirowo, akhoza kuyesedwa mopindulitsa pokhapokha tikamaganizira momwe ziwerengero zimayendera. Izi ndizofunikira makamaka pa munda umene kafukufuku amatsutsidwa ndi malo otetezedwa a gulu lake, achinyamata, komanso zovuta ndi zovuta za mutu wake, zolaula.
Cholinga chachiwiri cha ndondomekoyi ndi kuyanjanitsa zotsatira za kafukufuku omwe alipo posachedwapa kuti apange kafukufuku wa zotsatira zofalitsa. Ndemanga zam'mbuyomu, zowonjezereka, zakhala zikufuna kufotokozera mwachidule mabukuwa mwapadera osati kulinganiza izo mwachidule. Mwachidziwitso, njira ziwiri zofufuzira-kufufuza kwa achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi kufufuza zomwe zimatanthawuza-sizikuyimiridwa mokwanira kapena zasungidwa mosiyana. Komabe, ziphunzitso zatsopano mu kufufuza kwa zotsatira zofalitsa mauthenga (mwachitsanzo, Slater, 2007; Valkenburg ndi Peter, 2013) agogomezera kufunikira kwa mitundu yambiri kuti amvetse bwino nthawi ndi momwe momwe mauthenga omwe alili amakhudzira maganizo ndi makhalidwe a anthu. Kuphatikiza zofufuza zokhudzana ndi zolaula zogonana zimagwiritsa ntchito komanso zomwe zimakhudzidwa ndi chitsanzo chimodzi, sitingathe kungosintha zokhazokhazo kuchokera ku zochitika zongopeka komanso kuzindikira zolephera zomwe zingapangitse kafukufuku wamtsogolo.
Mogwirizana ndi zolemba zakale (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011d, pp. 1015-1016), timafotokozera zolaula monga zithunzi kapena mavidiyo omwe amapanga kapena kugwiritsa ntchito mafomu omwe amawathandiza kuti azigonana. Mavidiyo awa ndi zithunzi zikuwonetsera zochitika zogonana, monga kugonana ndi maliseche komanso kugonana kwa m'kamwa, komanso kugonana kwa m'mimba komanso kumatenda, mwa njira yosadziwika, kawirikawiri ndi kumapeto kwa ziwalo zogonana. Zithunzi zambiri zolaula pakalipano zimapezeka kudzera pa intaneti, zomwe zikuwonetsedwa mu maphunziro ambiri muzokambirana izi. Komabe, sitimangoyang'ana zolaula pa intaneti kuti tizitha kufanana ndi kuwonjezera kwa Owens et al.'S (2012) kuwunika, komwe ndikuwunikiridwa kwathunthu pamutuwu mpaka pano. Zakumapeto (zomwe zili patsamba lowonjezera pa intaneti), timafotokoza ngati kafukufukuyu adachita zolaula kapena zolaula pa intaneti pazanema zina. Ponena za achinyamata timatanthauza achinyamata azaka 10 mpaka 17 (kapena zitsanzo za achinyamata omwe amakhala ochepera zaka 18). Tidasankha zaka 10 kukhala malire ochepa chifukwa cha msinkhu uwu kutha msinkhu kumayamba, komwe kumatsagana ndi chidwi cholimbikitsidwa pakugonana (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010, tsa. 296). Timangolembera izi kwa anthu ochepera zaka 18 chifukwa, m'maiko momwe zolaula ndizovomerezeka, zolaula zimayenera kugawidwa kapena kuwonetsedwa kwa anthu azaka 18 kapena kupitilira apo. Pomaliza, monga momwe ndemanga zam'mbuyomu zasonyezera kuti maphunziro ambiri pa achinyamata komanso zolaula ndizochulukirapo (Bloom & Hagedorn, 2015; Owens et al., 2012), ndemanga yathu imakhudza makamaka maphunzirowa. Choncho, ifenso tinasankha njira yothetsera nzeru ndi zolemba zomwe zili zoyenera kuti tiphunzire zambiri. Komabe, tikufaniziranso zotsatira za maphunziro ochuluka-ovomerezeka omwe ali ndi kafukufuku wogwira mtima.
M'magawo awiri otsatirawa, timapereka zifukwa zogwirizana ndi zomwe timaphunzira zomwe timayambitsa ndikufotokozera njira zomwe timayesera kufufuza zolaula zomwe achinyamata akugwiritsa ntchito komanso zotsatira zake. Pambuyo pofotokozera ndondomeko yathu yosankha mabuku, timayang'ana kaye kachitidwe kachitidwe ka maphunziro osiyanasiyana. Kudziwa momwe zinthu zilili pa ntchitoyi ndizofunikira kuti tiwone bwinobwino zotsatira zake. Kutsogoleredwa ndi chitsanzo chathu, timabwereza mwachidule zomwe zimachitika pa kufalikira komanso kufotokoza zolaula zimagwiritsanso ntchito chiyanjano ndi achinyamata, kugonana kwawo komweko (mwachitsanzo, mfundo zokhudzana ndi kugonana, monga kugonana kusatsimikizika ndi kukhutira kugonana), ndi khalidwe la kugonana. Tikayerekeza zotsatira zake zonse ndi zotsatira za kufufuza kwapamwamba. Kuwongolera kumatsiriza ndi kuunika kovuta kwa zotsatira ndi malingaliro a kafukufuku wamtsogolo. M'zigawo zosiyanasiyana za nkhaniyi, timayambitsa zolemba pamodzi zizindikiro zotsatila. Timagwiritsa ntchito mawuwa pamasom'pamaso m'malo momveka bwino: Pamene wina akufotokozera za mgwirizano pakati pa chidziwitso ndi kusintha kwake, munthu akhoza kugwiritsa ntchito zowonetsera kuti izi zitheke, osaganizira zazing'ono (mwachitsanzo, Hayes, 2005).
Makhalidwe Ovomerezeka Ofufuza Zokhudza Achinyamata ndi Zithunzi Zolaula
Chifukwa kafukufuku wofufuza momwe achinyamata amagwiritsira ntchito zolaula sizotheka - ndizosaloledwa kuwonetsa zolaula kwa ana - ofufuza amadalira kafukufuku kuti awone za nkhaniyi, monga kafukufuku wazinthu zina zovuta (monga Beebe, Harrison, Mcrae, Anderson, & Fulkerson, 1998; Owens et al., 2012). Mukamawunikanso kafukufuku wofufuza, zinthu zitatu zofunika kuchita ndikufufuza ndizofunikira chifukwa zimakhudzana ndimayendedwe amakono pazofufuza pazovuta zomwe zimaika pangozi zotsatira zake (mwachitsanzo, Bradburn, Sudman, & Wansink, 2004; Ulendo & Yan, 2007).
Chikhalidwe choyamba cha kafukufuku chomwe chingaike pachiwopsezo kutsimikizika ndi kufalikira kwa zomwe apeza ndi njira yofufuzira (mwachitsanzo, pamaso ndi pamaso, patelefoni, kapena pakompyuta yolumikizidwa) komanso kuyang'anira mafunso (mwachitsanzo, omwe amadzipangira okha motsutsana ndi omwe amafunsidwa) . Mafunso okhudzidwa, monga mafunso okhudzana ndi zolaula, nthawi zambiri amakhala ovuta ndipo amakhala pachiwopsezo choulula (Tourangeau & Yan, 2007), Zachidziwikire kwa achinyamata omwe sangakhale omasuka kuwulula zakukhosi kwawo, atapitilizabe kugonana (Buzwell & Rosenthal, 1996; Peter & Valkenburg, 2011a). Chifukwa chake, kulondola kwa lipoti kungachepetse, pamene chinthu chosasamala chikhoza kuwonjezeka (Bradburn et al., 2004; Ulendo & Yan, 2007). Kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi zotsatira za kachitidwe kafukufuku pakuwonetsa khalidwe lodziwika bwino wasonyeza kuti njira zopitilira zamakompyuta zamakono (mwachitsanzo, kuyankhulana kwa makompyuta omwe akuthandizidwa ndi mauthenga apakompyuta kapena kufufuza pa intaneti) zimapereka chidziwitso cholondola kuposa njira zina zofufuza (Mustanski, 2001; Ulendo & Smith, 1996), komanso pofufuza pakati pa achinyamata (Beebe et al., 1998; Romer, 1997). Mofananamo, kulondola kwa lipoti ndilopamwamba ndi chinthu chopanda malire ndiloperepere pamene funsoli liri lodzipangira yekha kuposa pamene wofunsa mafunso akupereka mafunso (Mustanski, 2001; Ulendo & Smith, 1996), komanso pakati pa achinyamata (Romer, 1997). Pokumbukira izi, ife timafananitsa kachitidwe kafukufuku ndi mtundu wa kayendetsedwe ka kafukufuku.
Chikhalidwe chachiwiri cha kafukufuku chomwe chingayambitse kutsimikizirika ndi zowonjezereka za zotsatira zake ndi njira zothandizira (mwachitsanzo, mwachisawawa, ndondomeko, kapena mosavuta) kuphatikizapo chiwerengero cha omwe anafunsidwa omwe pamapeto pake amachita nawo kafukufuku (mwachitsanzo, mlingo woyankha). Chikhalidwe ichi chimagwirizana mwachindunji ndi generalizability ya zotsatira ndipo, pamene kuli kofunika ku mitundu yonse ya kafukufuku, ndizofunika kwambiri kufukufuku wokhudzana ndi kugonana. Kafufuzidwe kafukufuku wasonyeza zofuna zosiyanasiyana zosankha zosankha za kugonana. Anthu omwe amadzipereka mwaufulu pa kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi kugonana, mwachitsanzo, amadziwa zambiri zogonana, amakhala ndi malingaliro okhudzana ndi kugonana ndikukula kwambiri, ndipo amayamba kukhala ofuna ofuna kugonana (mwachitsanzo, Wiederman, 1993, 1999). Kafukufuku aliyense amene amauza yekha kusankha (mwachitsanzo, kudzera kuitana pa Webusaiti) kapena ali ndi chiwerengero chochepa choyankhira angapangitse zotsatira zabwino. M'mbuyomu, timayesa kuyerekezera sampuli komanso mawerengedwe a kafukufuku. Kuti tipeze kafukufuku, timafananiranso mitengo ya attrition.
Chinthu chachitatu chofunika kwambiri pa kafukufuku ndicho kupanga kwake (mwachitsanzo, mbali zosiyana ndi zakale), pamodzi ndi njira zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pofufuza deta. Zojambula pamtanda zimasonyeza ngati, panthawi inayake, zolaula zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi chidwi chosiyana. Zojambula zakuthambo siziwonetsa ngati, kupatulapo nthawi ziwiri zosiyana, zolaula zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi zosiyana siyana koma komanso zomwe zidachitika pakati paziwirizi ndi (ie, ngati kusintha kumodzi kumayambanso patsogolo kapena kumbali ziwirizo ali okhudzana mobwerezabwereza pakapita nthawi). Komabe, ngakhale kuti mapangidwe a longitudinal ali ndi apamwamba mkati mwachindunji kuposa mtanda-magawo ena, iwo sangathe kutulutsa njira zina zofotokozera za ubale pakati pa zolaula zimagwiritsa ntchito zochitika zina ndi zofanana zomwe mayesero angayese. Ndikofunikira kwambiri kulingalira momwe kuchuluka kwa masankhulidwe kumatulutsira kufotokoza kwina, mwachitsanzo, kupyolera mu njira zowerengetsera kapena kuphatikiza zosiyana siyana. Pokumbukira izi, timalinganitsa mapangidwe a maphunziro ndi njira zowunikira deta, kuphatikizapo kuphatikiza zosiyana siyana.
Njira Yothandizira Kulemba Zolemba Zolaula ndi Achinyamata
Kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu pankhani yogwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata ndi njira zambiri, zophunzitsira zomwe zidalimbikitsidwa, mwachitsanzo, ndi psychology yachitukuko (mwachitsanzo, Bonino, Ciairano, Rabaglietti, & Cattelino, 2006; Doornwaard, van den Eijnden, Wopambanitsa, & ter Bogt, 2015), kafukufuku wamalumikizidwe (mwachitsanzo, Lo & Wei, 2005; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a), ndi sexology (mwachitsanzo, Chen, Leung, Chen, & Yang, 2013; Kupita, Ngai, & Iu Kan, 2012). Chiyambi chosiyanasiyana cha maphunzirowa chikuwonetseranso pamachitidwe osiyanasiyana amalingaliro. Ngakhale sizingakhale zopanda chifukwa kuyimba kuti zolaula za achinyamata sizigwirizana ndi Mulungu, ndikofunikira kudziwa kuti maphunziro ochulukirapo sanadalire maziko aziphunzitso. M'maphunziro omwe adagwiritsa ntchito maziko azopeka, njira zomwe zidasankhidwa zidasiyanasiyana kwambiri. Ofufuza amagwiritsa ntchito, mwachitsanzo, njira yofalitsa nkhani (mwachitsanzo, Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a; Vandenbosch ndi Eggermont, 2013b), chikhalidwe chogonana (Chen et al., 2013; Peter & Valkenburg, 2008a, 2009a; To et al., 2012), malingaliro azachikhalidwe (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011b, 2011c; Ybarra, Mitchell, Hamburger, Diener-West, & Leaf, 2011), chiphunzitso cha zochita (Hardy, Steelman, Coyne, & Ridge, 2013), kugwirizana kwa chikhalidwe, kugwiritsira ntchito komanso kukondweretsa (Mesch, 2009; Mesch & Maman, 2009), mtundu wa hedonic-valence (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008a), chiphunzitso chodzidziwikitsa (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008a), malingaliro osasinthasintha (Peter & Valkenburg, 2009a, 2010b), lingaliro lofananirana pagulu (Peter & Valkenburg, 2009b), njira zogonana (Peter & Valkenburg, 2010b), ndi malingaliro olima (Weber, Quiring, & Daschmann, 2012).
Chifukwa cha zosiyana siyana zomwe zili m'mundawu, zikuwoneka zopindulitsa kukonza zolemba zomwe zili muzinthu zosiyana siyana zomwe zingagwirizane ndi kafukufuku wotsutsa zokhudzana ndi zolaula za achinyamata zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi kufufuza momwe ntchitoyi ikugwiritsidwira ntchito ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana, monga malingaliro ndi kugonana. Mwachidziwikire, chikhazikitso chiyenera kuphatikiza njira, monga machitidwe a zofalitsa, zochitika za kugonana, ndi chidziwitso cha chikhalidwe cha anthu, zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kawirikawiri pa kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula. Potsirizira pake, zolembazo ziyenera kuthandiza kuthandizira kufufuza komwe kulipo kotero kuti chidziwitso chodziwika bwino, kusagwirizanitsa, ndi mafunso otseguka akuwoneka mwa njira yophunzitsira yomwe ikulimbikitsanso kafukufuku wamtsogolo.
Kapangidwe kaziphunzitso komwe kamakwaniritsa zofunikirazi ndikosiyana kwakanthawi ndi mtundu wazama media (DSMM; Valkenburg & Peter, 2013). Mogwirizana ndi malingaliro ena atolankhani (mwachitsanzo, Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Slater, 2007), DSMM imaphatikizapo mitundu yotsatiridwa ndi mafilimu omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito poyesa kugwiritsa ntchito mafilimu. Kuwonjezera apo, DSMM imamveka bwino pazinthu zamakono, monga njira yofalitsa nkhani ndi maphunziro a chikhalidwe cha anthu. Mwapadera, DSMM imapereka ziganizo zinayi zomwe zimakhudzanso maphunziro pa achinyamata komanso zolaula.
Lingaliro loyamba la DSMM ndikuti mitundu itatu yazosintha (mwachitsanzo, zosankha, chitukuko, komanso chikhalidwe) zimaneneratu kugwiritsa ntchito media (Valkenburg & Peter, 2013). Ngakhale kuwunika koyambirira kwa zolembedwazo kumanena za momwe achinyamata amagwiritsira ntchito zolaula (mwachitsanzo, Bloom & Hagedorn, 2015), sitikusowa chidziwitso chodziwikiratu cha achinyamata omwe amadziwonetsera okha zolaula. Pokumbukira izi, timayesa kuyerekezera zosayenera, chitukuko, ndi chitukuko cha achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula.
Lingaliro lachiwiri la DSMM ndikuti mayankho akuti (mwachitsanzo, zinthu zomwe zimachokera pakugwiritsa ntchito media; Valkenburg & Peter, 2013) zithandizira mgwirizano pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito mafilimu ndi zosiyana siyana. Izi zikhoza kumvetsetsa (mwachitsanzo, kuchuluka kwa omwe akugwiritsa ntchito mauthenga omwe amawadziwitsa ndi kuikapo chidwi chodziwitsidwa kuti azitha kumvetsetsa zokhudzana ndi mafilimu), m'maganizo (mwachitsanzo, zonse zomwe zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi zochitika zowonjezera), ndi zokondweretsa (ie, digiri ya thupi kumadzudzula poyankha nkhani). Pamene Owens et al. (2012) amaletsa mwadala maubwenzi achinsinsi pakuwunikiranso kwawo, kuwonetsa zomwe atolankhani adachita zawonetsa kufunikira kwa zoyambitsa, motero maubwenzi osalunjika, kuti timvetsetse momwe kagwiritsidwe ntchito kazinthu zofalitsa nkhani zitha kuneneratu zosintha (monga Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Choncho timafananitsa mitundu yosiyanasiyana yamaganizo, maganizo, ndi okondweretsa omwe adawerenga m'mabuku a achinyamata komanso zolaula.
Lingaliro lachitatu la DSMM ndikuti zosintha, zachitukuko, komanso chikhalidwe cha anthu sizingolosera kugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi media komanso kuwongolera momwe magwiritsidwe azama media amalosera zamitundu (Valkenburg & Peter, 2013). Malamuth ndi anzawo (mwachitsanzo, Malamuth, Addison, & Koss, 2000; Malamuth & Huppin, 2005) makamaka akugogomezera kufunika koyenera kuganizira zosiyana pazomwe akuphunzira zolaula monga njira zosiyanasiyana zofunira. Ndemanga yachitatu ya DSMM ikuwonetsa izi. M'mbuyomu, ife timayesa ndikuyerekeza zosiyana siyana, zosinthika, komanso zosiyana siyana zomwe zimaphunziridwa m'mabuku.
Lingaliro lachinayi komanso lomaliza la DSMM ndikuti magwiritsidwe ntchito azama media ndi masanjidwe amakhudzana m'njira yogulitsira, ndiye kuti lingaliro (zosintha) zomwe zimanenedweratu pakugwiritsa ntchito media zitha kuneneranso zanema (Valkenburg & Peter, 2013). Ndemanga zam'mbuyomu za zolembazi zakhudzana ndi lingaliro limeneli pokhapokha. Zotsatira zofalitsa zofalitsa, zowonjezereka, zakhala zikuyang'anitsitsa kugwirizana pakati pa kugwiritsira ntchito mafilimu ndi zosiyana siyana chifukwa zikuwoneka kuti akufotokoza zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pazolumikizo mobwerezabwereza ndi zowona kusiyana ndi maganizo osagwirizana ndi azinthu zokhudzana ndi mauthenga (Bandura, 2009; Slater, 2007). Choncho timayang'anitsitsa ngati kugwirizana pakati pa zolaula ndi zosiyana siyana zaphunziridwa.
njira
Tidafufuza onse Webusaiti ya Sayansi (SSCI database) ndi PsycINFO ndi mawu ofufuzira (zolaula * ndi achinyamata *) OR (zolaula * ndi mwana wachinyamata) OR OR (zolaula * NDICHINYAMATA) zophunzira zapamwamba pa achinyamata ndi zolaula zofalitsidwa m'nthawi ya 1995 ku 2015 (kumapeto kwa December 15, 2015). Mu Webusaiti ya Sayansi, mawu ofufuzira akhoza kuwonekera tsa (mwachitsanzo, mutu, zolemba, wolemba mawundipo zolemba pamodzi). Mu PsycINFO, ife tafufuza minda mutu, zomveka, kutsogolera mawu, mfundo zazikulundipo mutu wapachiyambi. Timachepetsa kufufuza kwathu kuti tiwerenge nkhani zamagazini zamakono. Tidasankha zolemba za nkhani chifukwa ndizo makamaka zomwe zimayambitsa maphunziro apamwamba ndikuonetsetsa kuti zochepa zimakhala zofanana. Tinasankha timapepala tawonetsedwa ndi anzathu chifukwa kafukufuku wa anzanu nthawi zambiri amatsimikizira kuti maphunzirowa ndi othandiza kwambiri.
Kufufuza kwathu kunayambitsa nkhani zaku 349 poyamba pa Web of Science ndi zolemba za 271 ku PsycINFO. Choyamba, tinayang'ana ngati nkhani inalembedwa m'Chingelezi. Tinaphatikizapo zida za Chingerezi zokha, chifukwa zimapezeka mosavuta kwa akatswiri ambiri, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti phindu lathu likhale loyera komanso lovomerezeka. Choncho, sitinatchule nkhani zotsatirazi: Pa webusaiti ya Science kusankha, tinachotsa asanu ndi atatu mu Chijeremani, anayi mu Chisipanishi, awiri mu French, mmodzi mu Turkish, ndi wina ku Dutch; mu chisankho cha PsycinFO, sitinatumize 13 m'Chijeremani, zisanu ndi zitatu mu Chisipanishi, zisanu ndi ziwiri mu Chifalansa, zisanu ndi zinayi m'Chishinishi, ziwiri mu Chijapani, ziwiri mu Chikraki, ziwiri mu Chikraki, chimodzi mu Chichewa, chimodzi mu Chiitaliya, ndi chimodzi mwa Chipwitikizi.
Kenako, tidapatula zolemba malinga ndi imodzi kapena zingapo mwanjira zotsatirazi. Choyamba, tidapatula zolemba zomwe sizimakhudzana ndi achinyamata omwe anali azaka zapakati pa 10 ndi 17. Pomwe nkhani imaphatikizaponso anthu omwe anali ochepera zaka 10 kapena / kapena kupitilira zaka 17 (kapena zitsanzo za akulu akulu), zaka zakubadwa za (wachinyamata) amayenera kukhala pamwamba pa 10 ndi pansi pa 18 kuti phunzirolo liphatikizidwe ; Zolemba za 113 mu Web of Science ndi zolemba 43 mu PsycINFO sizinaphatikizidwe. Chachiwiri, tidapatula zolemba zomwe sizinapereke zotsatira zoyambirira zoyambira: zolemba za 31 mu Web of Science ndi zolemba za 49 mu PsycINFO. Chachitatu, tidapatula zolemba zomwe zimafotokoza makamaka za achinyamata omwe ali achinyamata (mwachitsanzo, opulupudza, zitsanzo zamankhwala): zolemba za 14 mu Web of Science ndi zolemba za 17 ku PsycINFO. Kuphatikiza anthuwa kumabweretsa kusintha kosokoneza. Chachinayi, sitinaphatikizepo zolemba zomwe sizinakhudze kwambiri zolaula zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito: zolemba za 115 mu Web of Science ndi zolemba za 66 ku PsycINFO. Nthawi zambiri, zolemba zotere zimakhala ndi nthawi zolaula kokha m'mawu achindunji koma sanapangitse zowonjezera; anangoyang'ana pazokambirana monga zolaula za ana kapena intaneti; kapena anali okhutira, nkhani, kapena mitundu ina ya malemba olemba. Mndandanda wa zochitika zomwe tafufuzazi zinali zofanana pa Webusaiti ya Sayansi ndi PsycINFO, ngakhale zili pa Webusaiti ya Sayansi. Kotero, ife tinali ndi zolembera zokhazokha zowerengera za 10% za zolemba zomwe analitenga ku Web of Science ngakhale, malinga ndi momwe ife tikufunira, iwo amayenera kuti aziphatikizidwa muzokambirana kwathu. Kudalirika kwamtunduwu kunali 100%.
Zowonongeka, nkhani za 64 zowonongeka ndi nkhani zisanu ndi zinayi zoyenerera zimaphatikizidwa kuti ziphatikizidwe muzokambirana. Komabe, powerenga nkhanizo, tapeza maumboni a maphunziro awiri owonjezera omwe sanagwiritsidwe ntchito. Choncho tinaphatikizapo phunziro lokwanira la Lo, Neilan, Sun, ndi Chiang (1999; yopezedwa mu Lo ndi Wei 2005) ndi phunziro lopambana la Vandenbosch ndi Eggermont (2013b; zomwe zinatchulidwa ku Vanden Abeele, Campbell, Oggermont, ndi Roe, 2014). Pazonse, tidawunikiranso maphunziro 75, kuchuluka kwa 66 (onani Zowonjezera mu Zowonjezera pa intaneti) ndi maphunziro asanu ndi anayi oyenerera (Abiala & Hernwall, 2013; Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015; Cameron et al., 2005; Wachibale, Nyanzi, & Pool, 2000; Lavoie, Robitaille, & Herbert, 2000; Lofgren-Mårtenson ndi Månsson, 2010; Marston & Lewis, 2014; Mattebo, Larsson, Tydén, Olsson, ndi Häggström-Nordin, 2012; Rothman, Kaczmarsky, Burke, Jansen, ndi Baughman, 2015).
Zolemba ziwiri zokha kuchokera pakusankha kwathu zidasindikizidwa mu nthawi ya 1995-1999 ndipo zinayi zokha mu 2000-2004. Munthawi ya 2005-2009, komabe, kuchuluka kwa zomwe zidasindikizidwa zidakwera kufika ku 20, komanso nthawi pakati pa 2010 mpaka 2014 mpaka 41. Mu 2015 (mpaka Disembala 15), zolemba zisanu ndi zitatu zidasindikizidwa. Zolemba zochulukirapo komanso zoyenera (n = 35) adachokera ku Europe. Mwa nkhanizi, 15 zidachokera ku Netherlands, zisanu ndi ziwiri kuchokera ku Sweden, zisanu kuchokera ku Belgium, ziwiri kuchokera ku Greece, ndipo imodzi kuchokera ku Czech Republic, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, ndi Switzerland. Kafukufuku wina adapeza zambiri kuchokera kumayiko angapo aku Europe (Ševčíková, Šerek, Barbovschi, & Daneback, 2014). Zolemba khumi ndi zisanu ndi chimodzi zidachokera ku Asia (zisanu ndi chimodzi ku Hong Kong, zinayi ku Taiwan, ziwirizi ku Korea, ndi chimodzi ku Cambodia, China, Malaysia, ndi Thailand). Zolemba khumi ndi zinayi zidachokera ku United States ndi imodzi yochokera ku Canada. Maphunziro asanu adachitika ku Africa (awiri ku Ethiopia ndi imodzi ku Morocco, Nigeria, ndi Uganda), ndipo zolemba ziwiri chilichonse chidachokera ku Australia ndi Israel.
Kupatula zochepa chabe (Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015; Bekele, Van Aken, & Dubas, 2011; Mattebo, Tydén, Häggström-Nordin, Nilsson, & Larsson, 2013; Odeyemi, Onajole, & Ogunowo, 2009; Skoog, Stattin, & Kerr, 2009; Vandenbosch ndi Eggermont, 2013a), zolembedwazo zikukhudza achinyamata komanso amuna. Zolemba zina zimakhudza achinyamata oyambirira (mwachitsanzo, Atwood et al., 2012; Ma & Shek, 2013; Shek & Ma, 2012a, 2012b); ena ozungulira pakati (mwachitsanzo, Skoog et al., 2009) kapena achinyamata ochedwa (mwachitsanzo, Chen et al., 2013; Madzi osefukira, 2007; Luder et al., 2011; Weber et al., 2012). Zolemba zambiri, komabe, zimangoyang'ana zitsanzo za achinyamata omwe ali ndi zaka zambiri, monga Zowonjezera zimawerengera maphunziro owerengera.
Maphunziro angapo adadalira zitsanzo zomwezo. Zitsanzo za Dutch zomwezo zidagwiritsidwa ntchito pazomwe Peter ndi Valkenburg (2006a, 2006b, 2007); ina ku Peter ndi Valkenburg (2008a, 2008b, 2009a, 2009b, 2010a, 2010b); ndi wachitatu ku Peter ndi Valkenburg (2011b, 2011c, 2011d). Mitchell, Finkelhor, ndi Wolak (2003), Ybarra ndi Mitchell (2005) ndi Mitchell, Wolak, ndi Finkelhor (2007) adatengera chitsanzo chomwecho cha achinyamata aku US (Achinyamata pa Chitetezo cha Internet Internet 1). Mitchell et al. (2007) ndi Wolak, Mitchell, ndi Finkelhor (2007) adagwiritsa ntchito Youth Internet Security Survey 2, pomwe a Jones, Mitchell, ndi Finkelhor (2012) yaphatikiza kafukufuku wa achinyamata pa intaneti pa achinyamata 1 ndi 2 ndi mtundu wachitatu wa kafukufukuyu. Shek ndi Ma (2012a, 2012b, 2014) ndi Ma ndi Shek (2013) adalemba zitsanzo za achinyamata ku Hong Kong; ndi Mattebo, Tydén, et al. (2013) ndi Mattebo, Tydén, Häggström-Nordin, Nilsson, ndi Larsson (2014) atengera ntchito zawo pa zitsanzo imodzi ya achinyamata ku Sweden. Mesch (2009) ndi Mesch ndi Maman (2009) onse adagwiritsa ntchito 2004 National Israel Youth Survey, pomwe To et al. (2012) ndi Kwa, Iu Kan, ndi Ngai (2015) adatengera zitsanzo zomwezo za achinyamata ku Hong Kong. Pomaliza, maphunziro a Doornwaard, van den Eijnden, et al. (2015) Wolemba Doornwaard, Bickham, Wolemera, ter Bogt, ndi van den Eijnden (2015) adatengera chitsanzo chimodzi cha achinyamata achi Dutch. Ponseponse, kuwunika kwathu kumakhazikitsidwa ndi zitsanzo zenizeni za 49 pazosowa zochulukirapo komanso zitsanzo zisanu ndi zinayi za maphunziro oyenera.
Timawerenga zolemba zambiri ndikuyang'ana zolinga ziwiri zakubwereza. Ngati chidziwitso chofunikira kuthana ndi chimodzi mwazolinga ziwiri zowunikirazi sichinatchulidwe momveka bwino mu zolemba, timayesetsa kupeza chidziwitsochi kuchokera kuzidziwitso kapena zolemba zina. Kuti timvetsetse za kukula kwake, tinawerengera za Cohen d (Cohen, 1988) pazotsatira zazikulu pamaultivatiate osanthula, malinga ndi ziwerengero zamtengo wapatali, monga za Pearson r kapena ziwerengero zosagwirizana, zidanenedwanso pazotsatira izi. Ndikofunikira kudziwa kuti a Cohen ndi d Mfundo zomwe zalembedwedwa mu kuwunikaku zikuwonetsa kuyandikira koyambirira, popeza zimangodalira kuchuluka kokha komwe kulipo. Sangasinthe maumboni a Cohen's d. Pogwirizana ndi misonkhano, timaganizira za Cohen d mfundo zomwe zimakhala pakati pa 0.20 ndi 0.49 (zofanana r mfundo zapakati pa 0.10 ndi 0.24) maubwenzi ang'onoang'ono, malingaliro pakati pa 0.50 ndi 0.79 (ofanana r maubwino apakati pa 0.25 ndi 0.37) maubwenzi apakatikati, ndi mfundo za 0.80 ndi pamwamba (zofanana r mfundo za 0.38 ndi zapamwamba) maubale olimba. Timawerenga zolembedwazi ndikuwunika momwe zotsatira zawo zikufanizira ndi zomwe zidapezekazo.
Results
Makhalidwe Ovomerezeka Ofufuza Zokhudza Achinyamata ndi Zithunzi Zolaula
Zakumapeto zimapereka chithunzithunzi chakufufuza kochuluka kwa achinyamata ndi zolaula zosindikizidwa pakati pa 1995 ndi 2015 m'magazini zomwe akatswiri amapanga. Monga Zowonjezera, kafukufuku wowonjezera pa achinyamata ndi zolaula anali okhazikika pazofufuza. Mwakuyerekeza kwamawonekedwe, kafukufuku wambiri adagwiritsa ntchito kafukufuku wamapepala ndi zolembera (49%) kapena kufufuza pa intaneti (20%). (Izi ndi ziwerengero zotsatirazi zidawerengedwa pamaziko a kuchuluka kwa zitsanzo zophunzirira zenizeni.) Ponseponse, 12% ya kafukufukuyu idalira pazowonera pankhope ndi 8% pazofufuza zam'manja, pomwe makompyuta adadzifunsa mafunso zidachitika kawiri kokha (m'malemba atatu, momwe amafunidwira anali osadziwika). Pomwe amafunsidwa ambiri anali odziyendetsa okha (73%), mosiyana ndi yemwe amafunsidwa mafunso (20%). Mafunso ambiri odziyimira okha adamalizidwa kunyumba kapena mkalasi kapena kusukulu. Ndi maphunziro atatu, mawonekedwe a kafukufuku ndi kasamalidwe ake sizikudziwika.
Maphunziro ambiri (59%) amadalira sampuli ndi chinthu china chosasinthika (chomwe chimakhala pachigawo choyamba, mwachitsanzo, masukulu kapena mabanja); 4% ya kafukufukuyo idakhazikitsidwa ndi zitsanzo za quota, zotchulidwa monga zitsanzo momwe, pamatengera a boma, magawo azomwe zimachitika, monga zaka, kugonana kwachilendo, ndi kuchuluka kwa maphunziro, zidayikidwa data asanakhazikitsidwe ndikuyang'ana kusonkhanitsa deta. Chiwerengero chonse cha 37% cha maphunziro omwe adadalira zitsanzo zosavuta, zotchulidwa ngati zitsanzo zomwe zinalibe chilichonse chosasinthika kapena cholowa (mwachitsanzo, pamene mayitidwe amatumizidwa kwa alendo onse a tsamba). Kukula kwa zitsanzo (zofotokozedwa pamaziko a omwe amafunsidwa pakufufuza) zosiyanasiyana N = 97 (Skoog neri Al., 2009) ku N = 11,712 (Ševčíková et al., 2014,, ndi kukula kwapakatikati kwa N = 896. Kukula kwaposachedwa kwazitsanzo kunali N = 1,498 yokhala ndi 1,930 yofananira, kuwonetsa kusiyanasiyana kwakukulu kwamitundu yazitsanzo. Mayankho adayankhidwa osachepera theka la maphunziro ndipo amakhala pakati pa 10% (ya makolo; Hardy et al., 2013) ndi 98.7% (Mesch & Maman, 2009), ndi kuyankha kwapakatikati kwa 82% ndi kuyankha kwapakati pa 74% (SD = 24.35). M'maphunziro akutali, chidwi chinali pakati pa 5% (Brown & L'Engle, 2009) ndi 46% (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008a), yapakatikati mwa 22% ndi kukopa kwapakati pa 23% (SD = 11.80).
Potengera kapangidwe kake, ma 80% a maphunziro anali ndi mawonekedwe amtundu ndipo 20% anali ndi mawonekedwe autali; 64% ya zolemba zidadalira pamabwalo ang'onoang'ono ochepa (OLS), logistic, kapena multinomial regression, ndipo 21% imagwiritsa ntchito modical equation modelling (SEM). Kuphatikiza apo, 15% yazolembazo zidapereka zotsatira zochokera pazowerengera zapadera kapena zapadera. (Kuchuluka kwa njira zamanambala zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kuwerengera kuchuluka kwa zochulukazo.) Ponena za zosinthika zowongolera, zolemba zimasiyana kwambiri, kuchokera pakulamulira kwa kuchuluka kwa anthu (mwachitsanzo, Bonino et al., 2006) kuti mumvetsetse mitundu yosiyanasiyana yolamulira, yophatikiza kuchuluka kwa anthu, umunthu, zogonana, ndi kugwiritsa ntchito intaneti mosiyanasiyana (mwachitsanzo, Luder et al., 2011). Zolemba pamalingaliro amitundu ingapo, kusiyanasiyana kwa chidwi, zitsanzo, ndi maluso owerengera zidapangitsa kuti zikhale zovuta kuzindikira kuwongolera koyenera kwamalamulo omwe agwiritsidwa ntchito. Komabe, zikuwoneka ngati zotetezeka kunena kuti kuchuluka kwa anthu, kugwiritsa ntchito intaneti (mwachitsanzo, mafupipafupi, mtundu, ndi malo ogwiritsira ntchito), ndi zosintha zokhudzana ndi mabanja (mwachitsanzo, kapangidwe ka mabanja, maphunziro a makolo, maubale m'mabanja) nthawi zambiri zimayang'aniridwa . Zolemba potengera kapangidwe ka kutalika kwa nthawi yayitali, chinali chizolowezi kuwongolera magawo am'mbuyomu amomwe amasinthira (mwachitsanzo, zovuta zina; onani Zakumapeto), ndimaphunziro angapo owongolera, kapena kuphatikiza, zosintha zina pakuwunika (Beyens, Vandenbosch, & Eggermont, 2015; Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Peter & Valkenburg, 2011b, 2011c, 2011d; Vandenbosch, 2015). Zotsatira za autoregressive sizinafufuzidwe, kaya olosera mwamphamvu a motsimikizika mosiyanasiyana (mwachitsanzo, kupsa mtima m'malo mwakukakamira kugonana; Ybarra et al., 2011) anali gawo la mtunduwo kapena zinali zosatheka kuwongolera magawo am'mbuyomu amalingaliro (mwachitsanzo, kuyambitsa kugonana; Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2013b).
Kutsiliza: Kubwezeretsa Mafunso ndi Zojambulidwa Zosiyanasiyana
Ambiri mwa maphunziro pa achinyamata ndi zolaula adatsata kuzindikira kochita kafukufuku ndikugwiritsa ntchito mapepala ndi zolembera kapena kufufuza pa intaneti ndi mafunso omwe adadziyendetsa okha. Pafupifupi magawo awiri mwa atatu a maphunziro (63%) amadalira masampulo omwe ali ndi gawo lazinthu zochepa kapena gawo. Kuthandiza kwake kunali kokwezeka kwambiri, mwina chifukwa maphunziro ambiri anachitika m'sukulu, koma chiwerengerochi chimadalira zambiri. Kuchuluka kwa ma peresenti pakufufuza kwakutali kunalinso kwakukulu.
Pazonse, pamenepa, kusamala kwina pang'ono pamaziko azotsatira zikuwoneka kukhala kotheka. Potengera kapangidwe kake, kuchuluka kwa kapangidwe kazigawo, komanso mawonekedwe amtundu wa kapangidwe kake kautali, amafunsa kuti asamale pakuwunikira. Mfundoyi ikuwoneka yofunika kwambiri chifukwa cha mikangano yaposachedwa (mwachitsanzo, Brown, 2011; Steinberg & Monahan, 2011) zokhudzana ndi momwe kusanthula kochokera pa achinyamata, komwe kumayang'anira kafukufuku wa achinyamata ndi zolaula, kuyenera kulowedwa m'malo ndi kusanthula kwamalingaliro chifukwa kumapangitsa kusiyana kwa zinthu zomwe zimapangitsa achinyamata kuti azigwiritsa ntchito zolaula mosiyana.
Kuwonongeka Kwa Kugwiritsa Ntchito Zolaula
Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata kuyesedwa m'maphunzirowa poyang'ana (a) kugwiritsa ntchito mwadala, (b) Kugwiritsa ntchito mwadala, ndi (c) kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula zilizonse (mwachitsanzo, kusiyanitsa pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito mwadala komanso mwadala). Gulu 1 ikuwonetsa kuchuluka kwa kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa zolaula kwa achinyamata mu maphunziro osiyanasiyana momwe zidanenedwera. Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa Achinyamata mwangozi sikuti kwaphunziridwa kuti kwaphunziridwa ngati kosafunikira (mwachitsanzo, Mitchell et al., 2003; Wolak et al., 2007) kapena mwangozi (mwachitsanzo, kusefukira, 2007; Tsaliz, 2011) kuyang'ana zolaula pa intaneti. Kuwonetsedwa kwamtunduwu kumatha kuchitika, mwachitsanzo, potsegula mauthenga osaperekedwa kapena kulandira maimelo a spam (Chen et al., 2013; Mitchell et al., 2003), kugwiritsa ntchito molakwika mawebusayiti a webusayiti, kusaka mawu omwe ali ndi tanthauzo lachiwerewere komanso tanthauzo lakenso 2007,, kapena mwangozi kupeza zithunzi ndi zotsatsa zaposachedwa (Chen et al., 2013; Ševčíková et al., 2014). Mitengo yowonetsera zowonekera mwadzidzidzi pa zolaula za pa intaneti yafika pa 19% yopezeka pakati pa 10- mpaka azaka za 12 ku United States (Mitchell et al., 2007) kupita ku 60% pakati pa atsikana aku Australia ndi 84% pakati pa anyamata aku Australia azaka za 16 kupita ku 17 (kusefukira, 2007); ndipo mitengo ikuwoneka kuti yatsika posachedwa, ku United States (Jones et al., 2012). Kafukufuku waposachedwa kwambiri adapeza kuti 41% ya achinyamata aku Taiwan adadziwonetsera mwangozi zolaula za pa intaneti (Chen et al., 2013), pomwe 68% ya achinyamata ku United States adakumana ndi zolaula (Hardy et al., 2013).
Gulu 1. Kugwiritsira Ntchito ndi Kuwonongeratu kwa Zakugonetsa za Achinyamata a Achinyamata (Osadziwa, Osatinso Zachangu, Zili Zonse) (Maphunziro Omwe Adaneneratu za Kuyambukira)
Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata nthawi zambiri kumawerengedwa ngati mwadala (mwachitsanzo, Luder et al., 2011), wokhala ndi cholinga (mwachitsanzo, Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a) kuwonetsedwa pazithunzi zolaula, nthawi zambiri kumakhudzana ndi kufufuza zinthuzo (Tsaliki, 2011). Mitengo yodziwonera zolaula mwadala inali yosiyanasiyana. Ybarra ndi Mitchell (2005) adapeza 7% yokha ya 10- mpaka azaka za 17 ku United States kuti azigwiritsa ntchito zolaula mwanyuzipepala (8% pa intaneti), Chen et al. (2013) adatinso 59% ya aku Taiwan X XUMUM- kudzera mwa ophunzira a 10th-grade adagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti chaka chatha.
Kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi zolaula zilizonse zomwe achinyamata amachita popanda kusiyanitsa mwadala komanso mwangozi zolaula adakhalanso ndi zotsatirapo zosiyana. Kuchulukana kunkakhala pakati pa ochepera 7% (kuwonera zolaula; Dong, Cao, Cheng, Cui, & Li, 2013; zolaula zimagwiritsa ntchito intaneti komanso zikhalidwe zachikhalidwe chaka chatha; Shek & Ma, 2012a) to 71% (kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula za intaneti chaka chatha; Chen et al., 2013). Weber et al. (2012) adapeza kuti anyamata 93% ndi atsikana 52% azaka 16 mpaka 19 anali atawonera kanema zolaula m'miyezi isanu ndi umodzi asanafufuze. Kuchuluka kwa ziwonetsero zolaula kuyambira 25% pakati pa achinyamata aku Taiwan (zolaula pa intaneti; Cheng, Ma, & Missari, 2014) kupita ku 98% pakati pa anyamata achijeremani ndi 81% pakati pa atsikana aku Germany (makanema olaula; Weber et al., 2012).
Pafupifupi maphunziro onse mpaka pano amaganizira za nthawi imodzi yogwiritsa ntchito zolaula za achinyamata, mwakutero kunyalanyaza momwe matendawa angayambire pakapita nthawi. Pothana ndi kusiyana uku, Doornwaard, van den Eijnden, et al. (2015) Posachedwa adaphunzira za zoyeserera zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito pazolaula za pa intaneti. Adapeza njira zinayi zakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa anyamata: zosagwiritsa ntchito kapena zosachita bwino; njira yomwe zithunzi zolaula zimachulukirachulukira; chizolowezi chogwiritsidwa ntchito mwa apo ndi apo; ndi chododometsa chakuchepetsera kugwiritsa ntchito. Magawo atatu ogwiritsira ntchito zolaula adatulukira atsikana: kukhazikika kosagwiritsika ntchito kapena kachitidwe kogwiritsa; njira yowonjezereka yogwiritsa ntchito trajectory; ndi khola wogwiritsa ntchito nthawi zina.
Kutsiliza: Achinyamata Amagwiritsa Ntchito Zolaula, Koma Makhalidwe Osewerawa Amasiyana Kwambiri
Zotsatira zakufala kwa njira zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula zimasiyana kwambiri, ngakhale zitakhala kuti kafukufukuyu anachita nawo mwadala, mwadala, kapena kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Kafukufukuyu akuwonetsa kuti pali achinyamata ochepa omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula, koma ziwonetsero zomwe zimawonetsa zolaula za achinyamata zikuwoneka kuti ndizovuta kuzitenga.
Zosiyanasiyana zakupezeka kofala kwa njira yogwiritsira ntchito zolaula za achinyamata zili ndi zifukwa zitatu. Choyamba, monga Gulu 1 ndipo Zowonjezera zimawonetsa, maphunzirowa amasiyanasiyana mwanjira zawo, makamaka mwanjira ya zitsanzo, kukula kwa zitsanzo, kapangidwe kacitsanzo, kayendedwe ka kafukufuku / kagwiritsidwe, ndi kagwiritsidwe ntchito ka zolaula. Zotsatira zake, ziwerengero zambiri zokhudzana ndi zolaula zimatha kukhala zachindunji pamaphunziro omwewo komanso zovuta kuzifanizira pakufufuza konse. Chachiwiri, kuchokera nthawi ya 1995 mpaka 2015, yomwe tidaganiziranso apa, intaneti yasintha kwambiri - komanso chifukwa choti achinyamata atenga zolaula pa intaneti. Kupeza komwe kunali koyenera m'ma 2000s mwina sikungakhale kwatsopano lero. Chachitatu ndipo pomaliza, ngakhale njira yosawonekeratu isanawonekere m'maphunziro omwe apendedwa, zochitika zamtunduwu (mwachitsanzo, maphunziro azakugonana, zachiwerewere) zokhudzana ndi maphunziro zimakhudza momwe achinyamata ambiri amafotokozera za zolaula. Zomwe zitatu izi — kusiyana kwa njira, kusintha kwa umisiri, ndi chikhalidwe, zimathandizira kuti kuchuluka kwa zithunzi zolaula kwa achinyamata kukufunika kusamalidwa mwadongosolo pamaphunziro amtsogolo. Pakadali pano, sitinganene kuti lingaliro lililonse la kuchuluka kwa kuchuluka kwa zolaula likuyipa pazinthu zitatu zomwe zatchulidwazi.
Zonena za Zakugonana pa Achinyamata
Okulosera zamatsenga a achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zifaniziro zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Pazomwe tidazindikira monga zonenedweratu, tidatsata chidwi ndi kupenda konkitsa mu phunziroli. Kuti muchepetse chiopsezo chofufuza zopanda pake, sitinena zotsatira za kusanthula kopindulitsa ndikungoyang'ana pazotsatira za kusanthula kwa multivariate. Pakufufuza kwakutali, timapereka lipoti kuchokera pamitundu yokhala ndi mitundu iwiri pokhapokha zotsatira za autoregressive zikuphatikizidwa (mwachitsanzo, kuwongolera kwamaganizidwe am'mbuyomu)
Pazotsatira, sitiphatikizaponso kulosera zakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata zomwe zawerengedwa m'mabuku. Ndizosakayikitsa ngati zochitika zomwe zimayambitsa mwayi zisintha mwatsatanetsatane pakati pa achinyamata. Kuphatikiza apo, sizikudziwika ngati yankho labwino kufunso lakudziyesa mwadala ndi njira yochepetsera mayankho osafunikira amtunduwu pa funso lodziwonetsa mwadala. Pomaliza, polingalira za kukhudzika mwadala, mabukuwo sanawonjezere mokwanira kuti, ngati kulumikizana koyamba mosazindikira, kukana kungakhale kwadala. Kupatula apo, ngati achinyamata aganiza zopitilizabe kuonera zolaula zomwe akumana nazo, zimakhala zovuta kudziwa momwe kupitilirabe kuonera sikungadziwike mwangozi kapena mwangozi.
Cholinga choyamba cha DSMM (Valkenburg & Peter, 2013) ndikuti kugwiritsa ntchito media kumanenedweratu pakusintha kwachitukuko, chitukuko, komanso chikhalidwe. Ponena za omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula, magulu asanu asinthidwa (kupatula maphunziro osagwiritsa ntchito mwadala): kuchuluka kwa anthu, mawonekedwe, zosintha zokhudzana ndi chikhalidwe, chidwi chogonana, komanso machitidwe apa intaneti. Ponena za kuchuluka kwa anthu, kafukufuku wochuluka wasonyeza kuti anyamata achichepere amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri kuposa momwe achinyamata amagwirira ntchito (Holt, Bossler, & May, 2012; Lo et al., 1999; Lo & Wei, 2005; Mesch, 2009; Mesch & Maman, 2009; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a, 2011d; Ševčíková et al., 2014; Shek & Ma, 2012a; Tsitsika et al., 2009; Wolak et al., 2007; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005). Kafukufuku waposachedwa pamafuko onse ku mayiko a European Union, komabe, waonetsa kuti kusiyana pakati pa kugonana pakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula sikungafanane kwambiri ndi mayiko omasuka kuposa m'maiko olemekezeka (Ševčíková et al., 2014). Vandenbosch (2015) sanapeze kusiyana kulikonse pakugonana kwa Achinyamata Achidatchi ku chikondi, mphamvu, kapena zolaula za pa intaneti. Achinyamata ogonana amuna kapena akazi okhaokha amapezeka kuti amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti nthawi zambiri kuposa achinyamata achimuna (Luder et al., 2011; Peter & Valkenburg, 2011d). Achinyamata omwe ali ndi maphunziro apamwamba kwambiri amatha kukakumana ndi zolaula za intaneti pazowerengera zaku Dutch (Vandenbosch, 2015). Momwemonso, atsikana ophunzira kwambiri adatha kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti pophunzira mu Swiss (Luder et al., 2011). Pakafukufuku wina waku Dutch, maphunziro anali osagwirizana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011d).
Pankhani ya umunthu, umboni wamphamvu udatulukira kuti achinyamata omwe akufuna kudziwa zolaula amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri kuposa anzawo (Beyens et al., 2015; Luder et al., 2011; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a, 2011d; Ševčíková et al., 2014), ngakhale kuti kafukufuku waposachedwa sananene chilichonse chokhutiritsa pazomwe zimalimbikitsa zolaula za pa intaneti (mwachitsanzo, chikondi, udindo, zachiwawa) zomwe achinyamata adaziwulula (Vandenbosch, 2015). Momwemonso, achinyamata omwe ali ndi kudziletsa pang'ono adya zolaula zambiri pa intaneti (Holt et al., 2012). Achinyamata omwe sanakhutire ndi miyoyo yawo amathanso kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a), zomwe zidafotokozedwanso patadutsa nthawi yayitali (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011d). M'maphunziro awiri a ku Korea, achinyamata omwe amadzidalira kwambiri amagwiritsanso ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri (Kim, 2001, 2011). Pakafukufuku waku Israeli, mosiyana, kudzidalira kunapezeka kuti sikukugwirizana ndi zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti (Mesch & Maman, 2009). Kudziyimira kopanda malire kumalumikizidwa ndi kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi (Weber et al., 2012,, monganso momwe zimakhalira. 2001, 2011). Pomaliza, achinyamata omwe ali ndi vuto la kugonana kwa hyperfeminine kapena hypermasculine anali atha kuwonetseredwa zachiwawa zapa intaneti kuposa achinyamata omwe alibe chidwi chotere (Vandenbosch, 2015).
Zosiyanasiyana zokhudzana ndi masiku ano zimatanthauzira mfundo zomwe zimayenderana ndi momwe achinyamata amatsatira kapena kukana miyambo ndi chikhalidwe pagulu lopatsidwa. Ponena za izi, achinyamata ophwanya malamulo (Wolak et al., 2007; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005) ndi achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zinthu (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005) adanenedwa kuti amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi. Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kunapezekanso pagulu la achinyamata omwe amatchedwa "zigawenga zazikulu" (Hasking, Scheier, & Ben Abdallah, 2011, p. 26). Mosiyana ndi izi, achinyamata opembedza (Hardy et al., 2013) ndi iwo omwe ali m'masukulu achipembedzo (Mesch, 2009; Mesch & Maman, 2009) osagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi, makamaka chifukwa chipembedzo chawonetsedwa kuti chikugwirizana ndi kudziletsa kwakukulu, malingaliro olakwika okhudzana ndi zolaula, ndikumawona kuti kuonera zolaula kumatsutsana ndikumayang'ana pazikhalidwe ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu (Hardy et al., 2013). Kafukufuku awiri achi Dutch, sanapeze chisonkhezero chazipembedzo pakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a; Vandenbosch, 2015). Kaya achinyamata adalembetsa kusukulu ndikukhala ndi makolo onse awiri sizinkagwirizana ndi zolaula (Lopez, Mukaire, & Mataya, 2015). Pomaliza, malingaliro osalimbikitsa pa sukulu (Mesch, 2009; Mesch & Maman, 2009) komanso kukhala ndi anzako omwe amachita zinthu zopatuka (Holt et al., 2012) adalumikizidwa ndikugwiritsa ntchito kwambiri zolaula pa intaneti.
Ponena za kugonana kwa achinyamata, omwe ali ndi chidwi chogonana, komanso omwe adagwiritsanso ntchito zachiwerewere pazinthu zina, nawonso amawonetsedwa zolaula pa intaneti (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a). Pomaliza, pankhani ya chikhalidwe cha pa intaneti, kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti kunali kwakukulu pakati pa iwo omwe ali ndi luso lalitali kwambiri pakuphunzira m'maiko onse a European Union (Ševčíková et al., 2014), koma sanali wogwirizana ndi luso la makompyuta a achinyamata mufukufuku wa US (Holt et al., 2012). Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti kumawoneka ngati kotsika pamene pulogalamu ya fyuluta idayikidwa (Wolak et al., 2007). Achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti nthawi zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito intaneti pafupipafupi (Ševčíková et al., 2014) ndi zochitika zosiyanasiyana, monga kugawana mafayilo (Wolak et al., 2007), maphunziro azakugonana (Tsitsika et al., 2009), kuyankhula ndi alendo (Wolak et al., 2007), Masewera a pa intaneti, ndi kugula katundu (Tsitsika et al., 2009).
Pakuwonetsa zolosera zotsogola zogwiritsira ntchito zolaula, Kafukufuku wayang'ana pamagulu atatu osiyanasiyana: kutalika / kufalikira, luso logonana, komanso kuthekera kokula. Ponena za ukalamba, zotsatira zosagwirizana zatulukira. Pomwe kafukufuku wachinayi awonetsa kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kumawonjezeka ndi zaka (Ševčíková et al., 2014; Shek & Ma, 2012a; Wolak et al., 2007; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005), maphunziro ena asanu sanapeze chowonjezeka chotere (Holt et al., 2012; Mesch, 2009; Mesch & Maman, 2009; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a, 2011d). Kafukufuku waposachedwa anena za kuwonekera kwa zolaula za pa intaneti za achinyamata achichepere komanso kudziwonetsa zolaula za achinyamata okalamba (Vandenbosch, 2015). Mwa kusasitsa kwa pubertal, Mosiyana, zotsatira zake zimawoneka ngati zogwirizana. Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi pa intaneti kwapezeka kwa anyamata onse (Beyens et al., 2015; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a) ndi atsikana (Luder et al., 2011) ndi kusuntha kwapamwamba kwambiri. Pazokhudza kugonana, zotsatira zake ndizosiyana. Zochitika zazikulu zogonana zidalumikizidwa ndikugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi pa intaneti pa kafukufuku m'modzi (Ševčíková et al., 2014) komanso osagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti (mwa atsikana) kumalo ena (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a). Ponena za kutukuka kwakanthawi, luso lazidziwitso (mwachitsanzo, kuthana ndi mavuto, kukhazikitsa zolinga, kusankha zochita moyenera ndikuchita zomwezo) zinali zokhudzana ndi zolaula zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pafupipafupi. Mosiyana ndi izi, mikhalidwe yabwino yachitukuko cha achinyamata (mwachitsanzo, kudziyanjana ndi ena, kuchita bwino, komanso kukhala ndi machitidwe abwino) zinali zokhudzana ndi zolaula zomwe sizigwiritsidwa ntchito pafupipafupi, pa intaneti komanso pazofalitsa zochepa (Shek & Ma, 2012a).
Potengera zolosera zapaukonde zofufuza zolaula, ofufuza adakambirana zokhudzana ndi mabanja komanso zokhudzana ndi anzawo komanso kuzunza. Kudzipereka kochepa ku banja (Mesch, 2009; Mesch & Maman, 2009), mabanja osauka omwe amagwiranso ntchito (Shek & Ma, 2014), komanso makamaka kuchepa mogwirizana pakugwira ntchito kwa mabanja (Shek & Ma, 2012a) onse anali ogwirizana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula mwamphamvu. Zomwezo zinali zowona pamaubwenzi osavomerezeka ndi womusamalira (wapa zolaula pa intaneti; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005) komanso wowasamalira omwe amagwiritsa ntchito njira mokakamiza (pazolaula; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2005). Kuphatikiza apo, kusamvana pabanja komanso kulumikizana molakwika pabanja kunali kokhudzana ndi zolaula zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pa intaneti komanso pazanema, ngakhale kutetezedwa ndi chitukuko chochepa cha achinyamata (Ma & Shek, 2013). Makhalidwe oyipa omwe amagwirizana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi (Mesch, 2009; Shek & Ma, 2012a). Kuyimira pakati kwa makolo (Ševčíková et al., 2014) ndikuyika mapulogalamu oletsa (Wolak et al., 2007) adalumikizidwa ndi zolaula zochepa pa intaneti. Mosiyana ndi izi, kusiyanasiyana kwa kuwongolera kwa makolo ndi makolo omwe amalankhula zolaula za pa intaneti ndi ana awo zidapezeka kuti sizikugwirizana ndi zolaula zomwe achinyamata amachita pa intaneti (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a; Wolak et al., 2007).
Ponena za anzawo, zolaula zomwe zimachitika pafupipafupi pa intaneti zimapezeka pomwe ambiri mwa anzawo anali achinyamata (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006a), pamene achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito intaneti kunyumba za anzawo (Wolak et al., 2007,, akamacheza pafupipafupi ndi abwenzi awo zolaula (amuna okha; Weber et al., 2012), ndipo anzawo atapezeka kuti amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula (kwa akazi okha; Weber et al., 2012). Kafukufuku wokhudza kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafoni yam'manja adawonetseranso kuti kudziwika ndi anzawo omwe si amuna kapena akazi okhaokha, kudziwika ndi anzawo omwe si amuna kapena akazi okhaokha, kufunitsitsa kutchuka, komanso kukakamizidwa ndi anzawo zimagwirizanitsidwa ndimakonda kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula (Vanden Abeele et al., 2014). Kuphatikiza kwa anzawo, komabe, kwapezeka kuti sikukugwirizana ndi momwe achinyamata amagwiritsira ntchito zolaula pa intaneti (Mesch & Maman, 2009). Pomaliza, ponena za kuzunzidwa, Wolak et al. (2007) adazindikira kuti achinyamata amakhala ndi mwayi wogwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti pomwe akuzunzidwa pa intaneti ndikuvutitsidwa m'miyoyo yawo yapaintaneti.
Kutsiliza: Wogwiritsa Ntchito Zithunzi Zolaula Cha Mwana Wamng'ono Amakhala Wachikulire, Wotsogola Kwambiri, Wofunafuna Ena, Wofooka kapena Wamavuto Aubanja
Kafukufuku waphunzira kuchuluka kwa olosera zam'mbuyomu momwe achinyamata angagwiritse ntchito zolaula. Komabe, umboni wowonjezera wazomwe zimaneneratu kuti achinyamata azigwiritsa ntchito zolaula akadali ochepa. Ngakhale kulibe miyezo yovomerezeka yokhudzana ndi kuchuluka kwa mayankho omwe akufunika kuti pakhale umboni wowonjezera, pali mgwirizano kuti zomwe apeza pazofufuza ziyenera kutulutsidwa kamodzi komanso makamaka kangapo (mwachitsanzo, Casadevall & Fang, 2010). Mukuwunikaku, timafotokozera zaumboni monga zotsatira zomwe zimapezedwa ndi magulu atatu ofufuza osachepera atatu osiyanapo pazitsanzo zofananira (kapena kutseka) mwa olosera posakhala ndi zotsatira zingapo zotsutsana. Pakuwona izi titha kunena motsimikiza kuti anthu omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi amuna, omwe ndi achikulire kwambiri, omwe amakhala ndi achinyamata omwe ali ndiubwenzi wocheperako kapena wamavuto. Komabe, ndikofunikira kudziwa kuti omwe amalosera zamatsenga azisintha ngati atha kupeza zolaula kapena chikhalidwe cha kusintha kwa zolaula. Mwachitsanzo, ngati intaneti ipezeka kwa okhawo omwe ali ndi mwayi kapena luso, omwe amatha kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti atha kusiyana kwambiri ndi iwo omwe amalumikizapo ngati intaneti ipezeka ndi aliyense. Momwemonso, ngati zolaula ndizofanana muchikhalidwe, kugwiritsa ntchito kwake kunganenedweratu ndi mitundu yosiyana kwambiri kuposa momwe imayesedwa kuti ndi yopanduka.
Kugwiritsa Ntchito Zolaula ndi Zogonana Za Achinyamata, Kudzikulitsa, komanso Kukhala Ndi Khalidwe
Zofanana ndi zomwe tawerengapo pazakuwonetsa zakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula za achinyamata, m'gawoli timanenanso zomwe zapezedwa pazosanthula za multivariate zokha. Monga momwe zidachitidwira kale, timapereka lipoti kuchokera ku mitundu yokhala ndi mitundu iwiri yokha pazomangidwe zazitali pokhapokha zotsatira za autoregressive zidaphatikizidwa.
Malingaliro Aakugonana
Pankhani ya malingaliro akugonana, kafukufuku wakhazikika pamitundu iwiri: malingaliro ovomerezeka okhudzana ndi kugonana. Timagwiritsa ntchito mawuwo malingaliro ovomerezeka monga maambulera osonyeza malingaliro oyenera pakugonana ndi omwe ali ndi zibwenzi, nthawi zambiri m'malo osagonana kapena kunja kwa chibwenzi. M'mabuku, malingaliro ovomerezeka a kugonana adayesedwa ndi njira ngati kugonana kopanda tanthauzo (Lo et al., 1999), malingaliro othandizira kugonana (Peter & Valkenburg, 2010b), malingaliro pakuwunika kosagwirizana ndi kugonana (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008b), kapena malingaliro okhudzana ndi chiwerewere (Lo & Wei, 2005). Teremuyo zikhulupiriro zogonana limatanthawuza zikhulupiriro zomwe malingaliro azikhalidwe, zofananira za udindo wamwamuna ndi wamkazi komanso zokhudzana ndi jenda. Njira zolembedwazo zikuphatikiza malingaliro opita patsogolo pakati pa amuna ndi akazi (Brown & L'Engle, 2009), malingaliro azimayi ngati zinthu zogonana (Peter & Valkenburg, 2007, 2009a), zikhulupiriro pakati pa amuna ndi akazi pazokhudza kusalingana kwamphamvu pakati pa maubale (To et al., 2012), komanso zikhulupiriro zokhudzana ndi kufanana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi (To et al., 2015).
Kulola Kugonana
Umboni wosagwirizana wapezeka kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata kumakhudzana ndi malingaliro olowerera ogonana (Brown & L'Engle, 2009, anyamata okha; Doornwaard, Bickham, et al., 2015, anyamata okha; Lo et al., 1999; Lo & Wei, 2005; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006b, 2008b, 2010b; To et al., 2015; To et al., 2012). Umboni wambiri umakhazikitsidwa pazowonera pamtanda (Lo et al., 1999; Lo & Wei, 2005; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006b, 2008b; To et al., 2015; To et al., 2012). Kukula kwa mabungwe omwe amapezeka m'maphunziro apakatikati kuyambira pa Cohen's d = 0.45 (Onani ndi al., 1999) ku d = 0.72 (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008b,, ndi avareji ya d = 0.56 pamaphunziro onse. M'maphunziro akutali, kukula kwamphamvu kokha komwe kumatha kuwerengedwa kunali d = 0.39 (Peter & Valkenburg, 2010b). Pofuna kutanthauzira zotsatirazi, ndikofunikira kudziwa kuti kugawidwa kwa zosintha m'maphunziro nthawi zambiri kumawonetsa kuti achinyamata ambiri amakana malingaliro azakugonana ololera (Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Doornwaard, van den Eijnden, et al., 2015; Peter & Valkenburg, 2008b, 2010b; To et al., 2012) kapena anali osakhazikika (Lo et al., 1999; Lo & Wei, 2005; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006b). Palibe kafukufuku yemwe anapeza kuti, pafupifupi achinyamata amalolera zolaula.
Lingaliro lachiwiri la DSMM ndikuti kuyankha kwamalingaliro, kutengeka, komanso chisangalalo kumayimira ubale womwe ulipo pakati pazogwiritsa ntchito media ndi zomwe zimasinthidwa. Kafukufuku wina apeza kuti zenizeni zolaula (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006b), makamaka chidziwitso chazachikhalidwe chake (mwachitsanzo, kufanana ndi zogonana zenizeni) ndikuzindikira kuti ndiwothandiza ngati chidziwitso chazakugonana (Peter & Valkenburg, 2010b), adayanjanitsa ubale pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula za pa intaneti ndi malingaliro olola. Panalinso umboni kuti kuyankha kwachinyamata kwambiri kwa achinyamata kumatanthauza zolaula (mwachitsanzo, gulu la zakuthupi, zokomera, zanzeru, komanso machitidwe a zolaula za pa intaneti; To et al., 2012) mwanjira yolowera ubalewu. Kukula kapena kuyanjana pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi oyimira pakati zimachokera kwa a Cohen d = 0.52 (pakuchita zenizeni; Peter & Valkenburg, 2010b) ku d = 1.00 (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006b,, ndi avareji ya d = 0.79. Kugawidwa kwa zosintha m'maphunziro awiriwa kunawonetsa kuti, pafupifupi, achinyamata sankawona zolaula ngati (zachikhalidwe) zenizeni kapena ngati gwero lothandiza pazidziwitso zakugonana.
Lingaliro lachitatu la DSMM ndikuti kusiyanasiyana, kutukuka, komanso mitundu ya anthu sizingangolosera kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwama media komanso kungachepetse kuchuluka kwa momwe media imagwirira ntchito molosera kusintha kwa zinthu. Mpaka pano, oyang'anira pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi malingaliro olola sanafufuzidwe nthawi zambiri. Pankhani yakugonana kwachilengedwe (wokhathamiritsa mosiyanasiyana malinga ndi DSMM), Brown ndi L'Engle (2009) komanso Doornwaard, Bickham, et al. (2015) adapeza chiyanjano pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso malingaliro olola kugonana okha kwa anyamata. Peter ndi Valkenburg (2010b), mosiyana, sanapeze gawo loyerekeza lazomwe achinyamata amakhala ndi zakugonana komanso zokumana nazo (woyang'anira wamkulu). Kuti et al. (2015) adatinso kuyanjana pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula za pa intaneti ndi malingaliro ovomerezeka a kugonana (mwachitsanzo, zogonana zogonana) amakhala olimba ngati achinyamata amalankhula zambiri ndi makolo zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndipo amamva kukakamizidwa kwambiri ndi anzawo kuti azigwiritsa ntchito zolaula (oyang'anira anzawo).
Ponena za mgwirizano pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi malingaliro olekerera akukhudzidwa (malingaliro anayi mu DSMM), umboni ulibe malire. Kafukufuku yemwe watchulidwa kale uja wa Peter ndi Valkenburg (2010b) ndi Doornwaard, Bickham, et al. (2015) adawona kuti, patapita nthawi, kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula za pa intaneti kunaneneratu malingaliro olekerera, pomwe malingaliro olola sananenedwe zolaula.
Zikhulupiriro Zakugonana
Magawo awiri (Peter & Valkenburg, 2007; To et al., 2012) ndi maphunziro awiri apakatikati (Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Peter & Valkenburg, 2009a) awonetsa kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata ndi zogwirizana ndi zikhulupiriro zolimba zogonana. Kafukufuku wachitatu wokhudzana ndikuwona kuti kuyanjana pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula za pa intaneti komanso zikhulupiriro zambiri zokhudzana ndi kufanana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi zimakhala zoyipa popeza achinyamata amakambirana nthawi zambiri za kugonana ndi makolo awo. Komabe, kuyanjana mwachindunji pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso kufanana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi sikunapezekepo mu phunziroli (To et al., 2015). Mofananamo, kafukufuku wachitatu wautali sanapeze mgwirizano pakati pa achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti komanso zikhulupiriro zogonana (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011b). Mu maphunziro omwe amapereka ziwerengero zamagetsi othandizira, zotsatira zake zimakhala za Cohen d = 0.10 (Kwa et al., 2015) ku d = 0.74 (Peter & Valkenburg, 2009a), zomwe zimapangitsa kuti a Cohen akhale d wa 0.42. Zomwe zinagawidwa mosiyanasiyana mu kafukufukuzi zikuwonetsa kuti achinyamata nthawi zambiri samakhulupirira zikhulupiriro za amuna kapena akazi okhaokha.
Kafukufuku awiri adawonetsa kuti ubale pakati pa kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa zolaula kwa achinyamata ndi zosiyanasiyanazi zosiyanasiyana zidasinthidwa (lingaliro lachiwiri la DSMM) poyankha mwatsatanetsatane: Kuyankha mwachangu komanso kotsimikiza kumati ku zolaula kumayanjanitsa ubale pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti komanso zikhulupiriro zosayimira mu Phunziro la et al.2012). Okonda zolaula adasokoneza ubalewu mu Peter ndi Valkenburg's (2009a) kafukufuku. Kukula kwakanema pakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pakukonda kwa Peter ndi Valkenburg's (2009a) kuphunzira anali a Cohen d = 1.21.
Oyang'anira omwe adaphunziridwa (lingaliro la DSMM atatu) adalimbikitsa mayanjano osagwirizana pakati pazogwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso zikhulupiriro zogonana zogonana. Kumbali imodzi, kugonana kwachilengedwe kwa achinyamata (woyang'anira wotsutsa) sanakulitse kapena kuchepetsa ubale pakati pazogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi zikhulupiriro zabodza (Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Peter & Valkenburg, 2009a), komanso zaka zaunyamata (woyang'anira wopita patsogolo) (Peter & Valkenburg, 2009a). Kumbali ina, kulumikizana ndi makolo zokhudzana ndi kugonana (woyang'anira) kumawoneka ngati kukupatsani mgwirizano pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula za pa intaneti komanso zikhulupiriro zokhudzana ndi kufanana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi (To et al., 2015).
Ponena za mgwirizano wamalonda (gawo lachinayi la DSMM), kafukufuku wina wautali adapeza umboni wazogwirizana pakati pa kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula pa intaneti komanso zikhulupiriro zogonana zogonana (Peter & Valkenburg, 2009a). Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti sikuti kunangolosera zikhulupiriro zamphamvu zokha pakapita nthawi komanso zikhulupiriro zabodza zimanenanso za kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti nthawi yayitali (Cohen's d = 0.68). Ubalewu unali wolimba kwambiri kwa amuna kuposa atsikana achichepere ndipo anali ogwirizana ndi kukonda zolaula.
Kudzikulitsa
Kafukufuku atatu atali ndi magawo atatu agwira ntchito zokhudzana ndi ubale pakati pa zolaula zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito komanso kudzipangira zawo zakugonana (mwachitsanzo, mbali ndi ntchito zokhudzana ndi chitukuko chakugonana). Umboni wina wapezeka kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata pa intaneti kumakhudzana ndi kusatsimikizika kwakugonana, ndiko kuti, momwe achinyamata samadziwira bwinobwino zikhulupiriro zawo komanso zomwe amakhulupirira (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008b, 2010a,, ngakhale milingo yosatsimikizika inali yotsika kwambiri. Makulidwe osiyanasiyana pakati pa a Cohen d = 0.32 mu kafukufuku wopingasa (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008b) ndi d = 0.20 mu kuphunzira kwakutali (Peter & Valkenburg, 2010a). Kafukufuku wina adapeza kuti achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti kudzera pakudziyang'ana pawokha komanso kufalitsa malingaliro apadziko lonse, podziyang'anira kwambiri (Cohen's d = 0.35; Vandenbosch ndi Eggermont, 2013a). Kuyang'anira thupi kunali kochepa kwambiri pakati pa anyamata omwe ankaphunzira.
Kafukufuku awonetsanso kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi kumagwirizana, ndikuwonetsa kukula kwa Cohen's d = 0.62, kutengera kugonana (mwachitsanzo, kulumikizana mwamphamvu pankhani zachiwerewere, nthawi zina kupatula malingaliro ena; Peter & Valkenburg, 2008a) komanso kuganizira zogonana (To et al., 2012). Pafupifupi, msinkhu wachinyamata wokhudzana ndi kugonana unali wocheperako (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008a), pomwe kuganizira zachiwerewere kumachitika mobwerezabwereza (To et al., 2012). Pomaliza, kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula kwapezeka kuti kumalumikizidwa ndi kusakhutira kwakukulu pakugonana pakapita nthawi, a Cohen's d = 0.24 (Wave 1 to Wave 2) ndi 0.28 (Wave 1 to Wave 3) (Peter & Valkenburg, 2009b,, pomwe achinyamata amakhala osakhutira kapena wokhutira ndi kugonana kwawo. Kudutsa mitundu yosiyanasiyana yakukula kwa kugonana, kukula kwa zotsatira zake kunali kwa a Cohen d = 0.28 pomwe kuthekera kwakugonana koyambirira kunasalidwa ndipo d = 0.35 pomwe chidwi chogonana chidaphatikizidwa.
Pafupifupi zolemba zinayi zawonetsa kuti ubale pakati pa achinyamata ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndikuwongolera pawokha siolunjika koma mkhalapakati (lingaliro lachiwiri la DSMM). Kuti et al.'s (2012) Kafukufuku akuwonetsa kuti kuyankha mwachangu komanso kovomerezeka kumati kuonera zolaula za pa intaneti kuyimitsa chiyanjano pakati pa ogwiritsira ntchito zolaula ndikuganiza zolaula. Peter ndi Valkenburg (2008a) adawonetsa kuti kugonana komwe kumayambitsa kugonana kumayanjana pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula za pa intaneti ndi chiwerewere, ndikufanizira kwa Cohen d = 1.28 pakati pazogwiritsira ntchito zolaula ndikugonana. Olemba omwewo adapezanso kuti kuchita nawo zolaula kunathandizira ubale pakati pa kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula pa intaneti komanso kusatsimikizika kwa kugonana, a Cohen d = 1.09 (Peter & Valkenburg, 2010a). Komabe, njira zomwe ochita nkhalapakati awa adanenanso kuti, pafupifupi, achinyamata anena kuti sanachite mwano ndi, kapena kuchita nawo zolaula. Pomaliza, Vandenbosch ndi Eggermont (2013a) adawonetsa kuti achinyamata amadzidalira (Cohen's d = 0.32, yogwiritsa ntchito zolaula) komanso kutengera mawonekedwe amalingaliro (Cohen's d = 0.37, wogwiritsa ntchito zolaula) adathandizira ubale pakati pa kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula pa intaneti ndikuwunika thupi. Wapakati a Cohen's d kwa oyimira pakati osiyanasiyana anali 0.77.
Ofufuzawo adayang'ana kwambiri zakugonana, zachiwerewere, komanso zaka monga oyang'anira ubale wogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi kudzipangira okha (lingaliro lachitatu la DSMM). Atsikana achichepere atawonera zolaula zambiri, adayamba kuchita nawo izi kuposa zomwe anyamata adachita (Peter & Valkenburg, 2010a). Komabe, mgwirizano pakati pa kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula pa intaneti komanso kutengeka ndi zachiwerewere, komanso kuyimira pakati pazakugonana, zinali chimodzimodzi kwa anyamata ndi atsikana achichepere (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008a). Ponena za zochitika zogonana (chitukuko), Peter ndi Valkenburg (2009b) adawonetsa kuti achinyamata omwe alibe zambiri zokhudzana ndi kugonana, komanso omwe adazindikira kuti anzawo ndi osazindikira zakugonana, amakhala osakhutira ndi moyo wawo wogonana akamaonera zolaula zambiri pa intaneti. Ponena za zaka za achinyamata, maubwenzi onse pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi kudzilimbitsa okha anali ofanana m'magulu osiyanasiyana.
Kafukufuku atatu ataliatali adasanthula maubwenzi apakati pa achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti komanso kudziyambitsa okha (lingaliro lachinayi la DSMM) koma sanapeze umboni wofananira wazogwirizana. Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti kunaneneratu zakugonana kwakukulu, kusatsimikizika kwakukulu pankhani yakugonana, komanso kusakhutira ndi zakugonana, koma kutanganidwa kwambiri ndi kugonana kapena kusatsimikizika kwakugonana kapena kusakhutira ndi kugonana sikunaneneratu za kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula pa intaneti (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008a, 2009b, 2010a).
Kugonana
Kafukufuku wazokhudza mgwirizano pakati pa achinyamata ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi chikhalidwe chawo atha kugawidwa m'magulu anayi: (b) mchitidwe wogonana (mwachitsanzo, zokhudzana ndi kugonana komanso zogonana popanda kudzipereka pachiyanjano); (c) mchitidwe wama chiwerewere (mwachitsanzo, machitidwe ogonana omwe angakulitse mwayi wazotsatira zoyipa); ndi (d) kusokonekera kwa nkhanza zogonana komanso kuchitidwa zachipongwe.
Maphunziro anayi akutali (Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Cheng et al., 2014; Doornwaard, Bickham, et al., 2015; Vandenbosch ndi Eggermont, 2013b) ndi maphunziro asanu oyambira (Atwood et al., 2012; Bogale & Seme, 2014; Luder et al., 2011; Manaf et al., 2014; Mattebo et al., 2014) tachita ndi mgwirizano pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso kupezeka kwa zogonana komanso kudziwa zochitika zosiyanasiyana zogonana. Zonsezi pang'onopang'ono komanso kwa nthawi yayitali, umboni wawoneka kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri kumakhala kofanana ndi mwayi waukulu wogonana (Atwood et al., 2012; Bogale & Seme, 2014; Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Manaf et al., 2014). Makamaka, pamene achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri, amawonekanso kuti angathe kuyamba kugonana (Cheng et al., 2014; Vandenbosch ndi Eggermont, 2013b). Mgwirizanowu, komabe, unali wamphamvu kwa atsikana kuposa anyamata (Cheng et al., 2014) ndipo adangowonekera pakati pa achinyamata ali pachibwenzi (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2013b). Luder et al. (2011) sanapeze ubale pakati pa ogwiritsira ntchito zolaula komanso nthawi yoyambira kugonana. Pomaliza, ofufuza sanapeze kuyanjana kosagwirizana pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso chidziwitso chachikulu ndi zochitika zosiyanasiyana zogonana (Doornwaard, Bickham, et al., 2015; Mattebo et al., 2014). M'maphunziro omwe amapezeka pakugonana, ambiri mwa achinyamata, omwe anali ndi zaka kuyambira 12 mpaka 24, sanachite zogonana. Kukula kwa zotsatira kumatha kuwerengetsa maphunziro awiri okha, ndi a Cohen d = .35 ku Atwood et al.'s (2012) kuphunzira ndi a Cohen d = 0.45 ku Bogale ndi Seme (2014,, zomwe zimapangitsa kukula kwa d = 0.40.
Ponena za machitidwe akugonana, kafukufuku wina wamtali wa ku Taiwan (Cheng et al., 2014) ndi kafukufuku wazigawo zitatu adawonetsa kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata kumalumikizidwa ndi chidziwitso chochulukirapo pakugonana, ku Taiwan (Lo et al., 1999; Lo & Wei, 2005) komanso ku Sweden (Mattebo et al., 2014). Achinyamata ambiri sanadziwe zochitika zongogonana. Kukula kwakanthawi kungawerengeredwe kafukufuku wamaphunziro awiri okha ku Taiwan, zomwe zingapangitse kukula kwa kuchuluka kwa a Cohen d = 0.55.
Umboni wa mgwirizano pakati pa njira zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi zosokoneza pa chiwerewere. Kafukufuku awiri ophatikizika apeza ubale wabwino pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi machitidwe omwe ali pachiopsezo cha kugonana. Mwachitsanzo, Luder et al. (2011) anapeza kuti abambo achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri amakhala kuti sanagwiritse ntchito kondomu pogonana kwawo komaliza, pomwe sizinali choncho kwa atsikana achinyamata. Van Ouytsel, Ponnet, ndi Walrave (2014) yanena za kuyanjana pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri (kutumizira zithunzi kapena zithunzi zolaula). Komabe, mu kuphunzira kwawo kwautali Peter ndi Valkenburg (2011c) sanapeze chiyanjano pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula za achinyamata ndi kugonana mosadziteteza. Mofananamo, mu Luder et al.'s (2011) kuphunzira pamtunda, kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula sikunalumikizidwe ndi anthu ambiri ogonana nawo ndikugonana koyamba musanafike zaka 15. Pafupifupi maphunzirowa, achinyamata ambiri sanachite chiwerewere, ngakhale ziwonetserozo zimasiyanasiyana kwambiri mwa maphunziro.
Ponena za kuwonjezereka kwa nkhanza zogonana, kugwiritsa ntchito magazini zolaula ndi nthabwala zimapezeka kuti zimakhudzana ndi kuvutitsa anzawo kapena kukakamiza wina kuti achite zogonana pakati pa achinyamata aku Italy, pomwe amawonera makanema olaula komanso makanema sizinali (Bonino et .,. 2006). Kugonana kwachilengedwe ndi msinkhu zidawongoleredwa. Pakafukufuku wakutali kwa US (Brown & L'Engle, 2009), Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kudzera pa makanema, magazini, ndi makompyuta kumalumikizidwa, pakati pa anyamata, ndi zonyansa zachiwerewere (mwachitsanzo, kukhudza kapena kutsutsana naye mnzake wakusukulu m'njira zachiwerewere, kupezera mnzake wa sukulu naye njira yachiwerewere). Khalidwe lakale, zaka, mtundu, chikhalidwe cha anthu, maphunziro a makolo, kusasinthasintha, komanso kufunafuna chidwi.
Pakafukufuku wina wamtali wa ku US (Ybarra et al., 2011), Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula zokhudzana ndi chiwawa zinali zokhudzana ndi kuchuluka kwa nkhanza zakugonana, umunthu ndi ukadaulo, pomwe kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri sikunali, kuwongolera kuwerengera anthu ambiri, kuchita zachiwawa kwakukulu kukhala yekha poyankha. Kugwiritsa ntchito kwa achinyamata zolaula kwachiwawa kunayendetsedwa ngati kuwonera kanema wovotera X, m'magazini, kapena pa intaneti "munthu akuvulazidwa ndi munthu wina pomwe akuchita zinthu zachiwerewere" (Ybarra et al., 2011, p. 5). Mchitidwe wogonana mwa munthuyu udamugwirira ntchito ngati kupsompsona, kumukhudza, kapena kuchita "chilichonse chogonana ndi munthu wina pomwe munthuyo sanafune kutero" (Ybarra et al., 2011, p. 5). Kuchitiridwa nkhanza zokhudzana ndiukadaulo kunayendetsedwa ndi zinthu monga kufunsa "aliyense achite zachiwerewere pa intaneti pomwe mnzakeyo sakufuna kuchita" ndikutumizira "chithunzi chomwe chinali chogonana m'njira yomwe munthu ameneyo sanafune Landirani ”(Ybarra et al., 2011, p. 5). Kupezeka kochitidwa zachipongwe pakati pa 60% pamafunde achiwiri a Brown ndi L'Engle's (2009) kuphunzira ndi 4% m'maphunziro a Bonino et al. (2006) ndi Ybarra et al. (2011). Phunziroli ndi Ybarra et al. (2011), pafupifupi 3% ya achinyamata azaka zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Pamaziko a zolembedwazi,
Kafukufuku wokhudza magawo atatu adapezanso kuti (zachiwerewere) zimagwirizana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Kafukufuku wachitika ku Ethiopia (Bekele et al., 2011) yawonetsa mgwirizano wamphamvu pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito achikazi omwe amagwiritsa ntchito mafilimu olaula ndikuzunzidwa kwawo (r = 0.61, a Cohen d = 1.54). Mgwirizanowu udalinso wofunikira pazinthu zingapo zomwe zimafotokozedwa pamndandanda wa nkhanza zakugonana (mwachitsanzo, kuzunzidwa, kuzunzidwa, kukakamizidwa kugonana, komanso nkhanza). Potengera kukula kwakulimba, ndizofunikira kudziwa kuti "Makanema owonera zolaula omwe amakakamizidwa ndi bwenzi wamwamuna waku sukulu" anali chinthu pamlingo wokhudzana ndi chiwerewere, monga "Kugonana chifukwa chakuwonera kanema wolaula" pa kukakamiza kugonana (Bekele et al., 2011, pp. 614-615). Mogwirizana ndi kafukufuku wochokera ku Ethiopia, kafukufuku yemwe watchulidwayi ku Italy adawonetsanso kuti achinyamata achichepere omwe amaonera zolaula komanso makanema olaula nthawi zambiri amatha kukhala ozunzidwa (Bonino et al., 2006). Komabe, sizikudziwikabe bwinobwino ngati maumboni omwe akuwunikira (onani Mndandanda 4 mu Bonino et al., 2006, p. 282) anali multivariate ndipo amawongolera zaka (monga momwe zalembedwera pa p. 281). Kuwerenga magazini azithunzi olaula komanso nthabwala sizinayanjane ndikuzunzidwa (Bonino et al., 2006). Pomaliza, mu kafukufuku yemwe anachitika ku China, kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kunalumikizidwa ndi polyvictimization yayikulu (mwachitsanzo, mitundu ingapo ya nkhanza komanso kunyalanyazidwa, kuphatikizapo kuchitidwa chipongwe) pakati pa achinyamata ndi amuna ndi akazi (Dong et al. 2013).
Ziwerengero zamavuto zimasiyana pakati pa maphunzirowa: 8% ya achinyamata azaka zapakati pa kafukufukuyu ndi Bonino et al. (2006) akuti adachitidwapo zachipongwe ndi anzawo, ndipo 10% ya atsikanawo akuti adakakamizidwa kuti agone. Mu phunziroli lolemba a Dong et al. (2013), 17% idakumana ndi polyvictimization, pomwe 68% ya achinyamata azomwe amaphunzira ndi Bekele et al. (2011) adakumana ndi chiwawa chimodzi chogonana pamoyo wawo wonse.
Palibe kafukufuku wapa zolaula omwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito ndipo machitidwe awo ogonana adaphunzira oyimira pakati (lingaliro lachiwiri la DSMM). Ponena za oyang'anira (lingaliro lachitatu la DSMM), umboni womwe ulipo ukuwonetsa kuti ubale womwe umagwiritsidwa ntchito pazolaula komanso zachiwerewere ukhoza kukhala wamphamvu pakati pa anyamata kuposa atsikana (Brown & L'Engle, 2009). Mosiyana ndi izi, kuyanjana pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndikuzunzidwa kwawonetsedwa bwino pakati pa atsikana (Bekele et al., 2011; Bonino et al., 2006). Kuyanjana pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndikuyambitsa kugonana kunali kwamphamvu pakati pa atsikana kuposa anyamata (Cheng et al., 2014). Mgwirizanowu udasinthidwanso ndi kukhwima m'mimba: Pakati pa omwe anali atangoyamba kumene kukula, kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kunali kokhudzana ndi mwayi waukulu woyambitsa kugonana. Mofananamo, pakati pa omwe adzabereke msanga, zinali zokhudzana ndi mwayi wochepa kutero (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2013b). Pafupifupi kafukufuku umodzi wokhudzana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi kugonana komwe kumagona pakubwera komwe kumachitika pakati pa achinyamata azaka (Cheng et al., 2014). Maubwenzi apakati pa kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula ndi kupezeka kwa zochitika zina zogonana (malingaliro anayi a DSMM) amafufuzidwa kokha ndi Vandenbosch ndi Eggermont (2013b) ndi Doornwaard, Bickham, et al. (2015), yemwe sanapeze umboni kuti kugonana kumagwirizana ndi zolaula.
Kutsiliza: Zithunzi Zolaula Zokhudzana ndi Maganizo Ogonana Ndi Ena Amachita Zakugonana, Koma Zosayambitsa Zosayenera
Pafupifupi kafukufuku amene wapezeka wapereka umboni wosatsutsika wosonyeza kuti zithunzi zolaula za achinyamata zimagwirizana ndi chikhalidwe chawo. Pali umboni wamphamvu pakati pa mgwirizano pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso malingaliro olola ovomerezeka, omwe anali, malinga ndi a Cohen's (1988) miyezo, yapakatikati mu maphunziro a gawo. Komabe, kuchuluka kwa achinyamata pazokhudza kuloleza kugonana kunali kochepa kwambiri. Chifukwa chake, zikuwoneka zoyenera kunena za mgwirizano pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi komanso mosasamala kwambiri (m'malo molekerera).
Ponena za ubale pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso zikhulupiriro zolimba zogonana, umboni umawoneka kuti zikuwonetsa kuti zolaula za achinyamata zimagwirizana ndi zikhulupiriro zomwe sizikupita patsogolo (zomwe zikuwoneka ngati mawu oyenerera omwe apatsidwa magawidwe). Komabe, kukula kwa ubale pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi komanso zikhulupiriro zambiri zogonana. Chifukwa cha zomwe sizinasinthidwe kufufuzidwa konse komanso kukula kwake kocheperako, ubale pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso zikhulupiriro zolimba zogonana.
Kafukufuku wina akuwonetsa kuti ubale pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi malingaliro ovomerezeka pazakugonana ndi zikhulupiriro zokhudzana ndi jenda zimasiyanitsidwa ndi mayankho amazindikira. Komabe, umboni wokwanira udasowekabe chifukwa oimira ena osiyanasiyana ndi osiyana malingaliro. Mpaka pano, kafukufuku sanakhazikitsenso umboni wokhazikika wazomwe zimayendera (mwachitsanzo, kugonana kwachilengedwe) mgwirizano womwe uli pakati pazogwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso malingaliro okhudzana ndi kugonana komanso zikhulupiriro zofanana. Ngakhale kusintha kwamitundu (monga, zaka) sikuwoneka ngati kuchepetsa ubale, komabe umboni wina woyambira (ngakhale osagwirizana ndi zina) ukuoneka kuti kusiyanasiyana pakati pa makolo, monga kulumikizana kwa makolo zokhudzana ndi kugonana, kungatenge gawo. Panalibe umboni wambiri wazokhudza kusintha pakati pa achinyamata pazogwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Komabe, kafukufuku wina anapeza zotsatira zakusinthika pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso zikhulupiriro pakati pa amuna ndi akazi.
Kafukufuku omwe alipo akuwonetsa kuyanjana pakati pa zolaula za achinyamata zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi malingaliro osiyanasiyana okhudzana ndi chitukuko cha kugonana kwa achinyamata, koma umboni wowonjezera sunakhazikitsidwe: Zambiri zomwe zapezedwa zimachokera pakuwunika komweko (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008b, 2009b, 2010a), ndipo malingaliro omwe aphunziridwa akadali osiyanasiyana. Mofananamo, lingaliro loti yankho liti likunena bwino momwe ubale wogwiritsira ntchito zolaula umagwirira ntchito ndi zomwe sizingachitike pakadali pano: Gawo la zotsatirazo linali potengera chitsanzo chomwecho (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008a, 2010a), ndipo umboni wa kuyankha kwamphamvu kumati anthu oyimira pakati akadali osowa. Panalibe umboni wosatsutsika wonena za ubale pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi kudzilimbitsa pakulimba kwaukalamba wolimba kwa achinyamata kapena amuna. Kuphatikiza apo, pomwe kafukufuku wina anapeza kuti zomwe achinyamata amachita pakugonana zimachepetsa kulimba kwa ubale pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi kudzilimbitsa, zaka sizinapezeke kuti zitha kukhala zochepa. Palibe umboni wazokhudza kusintha kwatsoka.
Mokulira, maphunziro omwe tidawerengera ankakonda kuwonetsa kuti achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula anali okhudzana ndi zochitika zogonana, zochitika zambiri zogonana, komanso mwayi waukulu wochita zachiwerewere komanso kuzimvera, makamaka pakati pa achinyamata achichepere. Panalibe umboni kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri kumalumikizidwa ndi chidziwitso chachikulu ndi zochitika zosiyanasiyana zogonana. Kuphatikiza apo, umboni wosasinthika, wosasunthika, komanso wowonjezereka wa ubale pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi machitidwe achiwerewere akusowa.
Kufufuza sikunapereke chidziwitso chilichonse kwa oyimira pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula za achinyamata ndi machitidwe awo ogonana, komanso kunalibe umboni wazotsatira. Ubale pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi chiwawa chogonana zinali zolimba kwa anyamata, pomwe kuti pakati pazogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndikuzunzidwa zimawonetsedwa makamaka kwa atsikana. Kuyanjana pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndikuyambitsa kugonana kunali kwamphamvu kwa atsikana ndi achinyamata kumayambiriro kwa msambo. Atsikana adawonetseranso ubale wamphamvu pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso machitidwe ogonana omwe amapezeka kawiri paphunziro limodzi. Nthawi zambiri, kudziwa kwathu za oyang'anira pakati pa ogwiritsira ntchito zolaula ndi machitidwe achiwerewere kumadalipo osiyanasiyana ndipo kulibe vuto.
Ziganizo pazakugwiritsa ntchito kwa zolaula kwa achinyamata ndi machitidwe awo ogonana ziyenera kuwoneka potsatira njira zotsatirazi: Choyamba, kukula kwa ubale pakati pa ogwiritsira ntchito zolaula komanso kupezeka kwa kugonana komanso momwe amachitirana ndi anyamata omwe sanachite zogonana kunali kochepa komanso kwapakatikati, motero . Komabe, kuwerengera za kukula kwake kumayambira pa maphunziro ochepa okha omwe amapereka ziwerengero zofunika. Zomwe kukula kwake kumayambira kumangoyenderana, kosakwanira koyamba. Chachiwiri, achinyamata ambiri samachita zogonana pafupipafupi kapena samachita chiwerewere. Izi zikutanthauza kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata kunalumikizidwa ndi zochepa pamakhalidwe awa m'malo ndi zochitika zawo zazikulu. Chachitatu, ziwerengero za kuchuluka kwa nkhanza zakugonana komanso kugwiriridwa zimasiyana pakati pa maphunziro. Kafukufuku wamtsogolo akuyenera kugwira ntchito mwadongosolo pamafotokozedwe ofanana mwamalingaliro ndi magwiridwe antchito a nkhanza zogonana ndi kuchitidwa zachipongwe. Chachinayi, pomwe mayanjano onse opezeka pakati pa achinyamata ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi zomwe amachita atagwiritsa ntchito njira zachiwerewere angapindule ndi njira yolongosoka komanso yogwira mtima yogwiritsira ntchito zolaula, izi ndizofunikira kwambiri pakumvana pakati pa zolaula. Njira zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pophunzira mayanjano awa zinali zosiyanasiyana, ndipo tikuyenera kudziwa bwino kuti ndi zolaula ziti zomwe zimagwirizana ndi nkhanza zakugonana, zomwe sizoyenera, kufotokozera mgwirizanowu bwino. Momwemonso, tiyenera kudziwa zambiri za njira zomwe zimayambitsa ubale pakati pa zolaula komanso kuchitiridwa zachipongwe kuti timvetsetse bwino chifukwa chomwe ubalewu wapezeka m'mabuku.
Fananizani ndi Zomwe Zapezedwa Pakufufuza kwamakhalidwe
Zambiri mwa zomwe amafufuza pakukula kwa zaka zambiri zakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula za achinyamata zathandizidwanso pakufufuza koyenera pankhaniyi. Mwachitsanzo, zofanana ndi kuchuluka kwa kafukufuku, kafukufuku woyesera wasonyeza kuti achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula mwangozi komanso mwadala (Cameron et al., 2005; Lofgren-Mårtenson ndi Månsson, 2010). Momwemonso, pali umboni wosasunthika pakufufuza koyenera kuti achinyamata achimuna amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi kuposa momwe achinyamata achikazi amachitira (Cameron et al., 2005; Lofgren-Mårtenson ndi Månsson, 2010). Kafukufuku woyenera, kuphatikiza apo, apereka zifukwa zakusiyana kwakugonana pazogwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Poyerekeza ndi atsikana, anyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri chifukwa chofuna kudziwa, zokhudzana ndi kugonana (Abiala & Hernwall, 2013; Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015; Cameron et al., 2005; Lofgren-Mårtenson ndi Månsson, 2010), komanso zosangalatsa (Rothman et al., 2015). Anyamata amawonekanso kuti amakonda kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri pazomwe Lofgren-Mårtenson ndi Månsson (2010) akuti "kugonana," kuonera zolaula pamodzi ndi anyamata ena. Ngakhale anyamata nthawi zambiri amatsutsa zolaula, atsikana amakhala ovuta kutengera zolaula: Nthawi zambiri zimawoneka zosayankhula komanso zowopsa (Cameron et al., 2005) ndikuyandikira kuchokera pakuwona kolakwika (Abiala & Hernwall, 2013; Lofgren-Mårtenson ndi Månsson, 2010).
Ngakhale kafukufuku woyesera sanapereke zambiri zakanenedweratu (monga, chitukuko kapena chikhalidwe) chogwiritsa ntchito zolaula, zidawunikira zinthu ziwiri zomwe kafukufuku wambiri adanyalanyaza mpaka pano. Choyamba, idalongosola bwino zokhudzana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata osagonana amuna kapena akazi okhaokha. Mwachitsanzo, kafukufuku waposachedwa ku US adawona kuti achinyamata omwe amagonana amuna okhaokha kapena akazi okhaokha amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula makamaka kuti adzifufuze kuti adziwe zakugonana komanso kuti azikhala okonzeka kugonana (Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015). Chachiwiri, kafukufuku woyenera wasanthula zolaula zomwe achinyamata amasankha. Mwachitsanzo, achinyamata akumatauni, ochepetsa, Achinyamata ndi Achinyamata ku Spain nthawi zambiri amawonera zolaula zomwe zimawonetsa kugonana kwa amuna kapena akazi okhaokha, koma adalumikizananso ndi zithunzi zolaula kwambiri, monga kuchititsa manyazi pagulu, kugona ndi nyama, ukapolo, ndi bukkake (Rothman et al ., 2015).
Kafukufuku woyenerera adanenanso za ubale womwe umakhalapo pakati pa zolaula ndi zikhulupiriro zogonana zogonana. Mwachitsanzo, maphunziro awiri aku Sweden, adawonetsa kuti anyamata ndi atsikana onse anali kutsutsa kuwonetsedwa kosafanana kwa amuna ndi akazi pazolaula (Lofgren-Mårtenson & Månsson, 2010), abambo akuwonetsedwa kukhala opambana komanso azimayi ngati ogonjera (Mattebo et al., 2012). Poyamba, zotsatirazi zikuwoneka kuti zikusemphana ndi zomwe zapezedwa kuchokera pazowerengera zomwe zolaula zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndizokhudzana ndi zikhulupiriro zamphamvu zogonana (Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Peter & Valkenburg, 2007, 2009a; To et al., 2012). Komabe, m'maphunziro onse ochulukitsa, achinyamata amakhala, pafupifupi, zikhulupiriro zopita patsogolo pamagulu amuna ndi akazi. Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi kumatha kukhala kokhudzana ndi zikhulupiriro zomwe amuna kapena akazi amakhala nazo chifukwa zimafooketsa zikhulupiriro zomwe zimakhudza amuna kapena akazi, makamaka achinyamata akamaphunzira (Peter & Valkenburg, 2009a). Komabe, funso lofunikanso mtsogolomo kukhala loti malingaliro owoneka okhudzana ndi kugonana pa zolaula atha kuchepetsa ubale pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso zikhulupiriro zogonana.
Ponena za kudzikulitsa pakukula kwa achinyamata, maphunziro oyenerera adawonetsa kusiyana pakati pa momwe achinyamata amawonera zolaula (Lofgren-Mårtenson & Månsson, 2010; Mattebo et al., 2012). Achinyamata achikazi adafotokoza zonse zokhuza kugonana ndi kupweteketsa mtima, ndipo achinyamata achimuna amafotokoza malingaliro abwino komanso osalimbikitsa a zolaula (Mattebo et al., 2012). Kusamvana kumeneku kumafanana ndi kusatsimikizika kwakugonana komwe kumalumikizidwa ndi zolaula kumagwiritsa ntchito maphunziro ochulukirapo (Peter & Valkenburg, 2008b, 2010a). Kukopa komwe achinyamata amakumana nako akakumana ndi zolaula kungasinthe kukhala osatsimikiza pazomwe akumva komanso akufuna kugonana. Panalibe zochulukirapo pakati pa maphunziro ochulukitsa komanso oyenererana pazinthu zina zokhudzana ndi achinyamata zomwe zimapangitsa kuti achinyamata azitukuka. Komabe, maphunziro ena oyenerera adapeza kuti, pomwe achinyamata achichepere, makamaka, adatsutsa zolakwika zomwe sizingatheke zomwe zimawonetsedwa muzolaula (Mattebo et al., 2012), Adavomerezanso kuti amatengeka ndi izi (Lofgren-Mårtenson & Månsson, 2010), adawawona ngati gwero lazidziwitso zakugonana (Kinsman et al., 2000), komanso ambiri akukakamizidwa ndi mauthenga ogonana mu zolaula (Mattebo et al., 2012).
Ponena za ubale pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi machitidwe ogonana, kafukufuku waposachedwa kuwonetsa kuti achinyamata atha kuphunzira zolemba zogonana kapena zolaula kuchokera pa zolaula (Lavoie et al., 2000; Marston & Lewis, 2014,, ndi achinyamata ena kutsanzira zomwe amawonera pazolaula (Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015; Rothman et al., 2015). Zotsatira izi zikuwonetsa ubale pakati pa kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula ndi machitidwe ogonana, monga zikuwonetsedwa ndi maphunziro owerengeka (mwachitsanzo, Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Vandenbosch ndi Eggermont, 2013b), ndikuwonetsanso zolemba zolaula ngati chimango chazogonana (Lofgren-Mårtenson & Månsson, 2010). Makamaka, achinyamata ena akuwoneka kuti amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula ngati "buku logonana" (Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015), mwachitsanzo, kuti mudziwe za kugonana, malo ogonana, maudindo ogonana, komanso momwe magwiridwe antchito akugonana, komanso momwe mungakhalire pakugonana (Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015; Rothman et al., 2015). Pakafukufuku waku Canada, atsikana achinyamata adanenanso kuti anyamata angaphunzire zamtopola kuchokera ku zolaula, zomwe anyamata ena amawoneka kuti akugwirizana (Lavoie et al., 2000). Pomwe omwe adachita nawo kafukufuku waku Sweden adatsimikiza kuti amatha kusiyanitsa zopeka zolaula ndi zenizeni zakugonana, nthawi zina amawonanso kuti zolaula ndizodalirika (Lofgren-Mårtenson & Månsson, 2010).
Zotsatirazi zikugwirizana ndi kafukufuku wochuluka yemwe wasonyeza kuti zikuchitika (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006b), makamaka zithunzi zolaula monga gwero lazidziwitso zakugonana (Peter & Valkenburg, 2010b), ikhoza kufotokozera chifukwa chake kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kumagwirizana ndi malingaliro ovomerezeka. Pazaka zochulukirazi, achinyamata ambiri sanawone zolaula ngati zenizeni. Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pafupipafupi, komabe, zidawapangitsa kuzindikira kuti izi ndi "zopanda pake," zomwe zimagwirizana ndi malingaliro ovomerezeka akugonana. Kuti tithe kumvetsetsa za kufunika kwa zolaula ngati gwero lazidziwitso zakugonana, kafukufuku wamtsogolo adzafunika kuthana ndi mikhalidwe yomwe mitundu ya achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula kuti aphunzire zokhudzana ndi kugonana.
Zambiri, ngakhale kuli kwakuti kafukufuku wowonjezera pa achinyamata komanso zolaula amakhala wosiyana pazosankha zomwe adasankhidwa, zotsatira zake zimakhala zambiri mosagwirizana kapena zowonjezera kuposa zotsutsana. Mwambiri, kuyerekezera komwe zapezedwa ndikufufuza kozama komanso kuyeneranso kuyambitsa mafunso ofunika pakufufuza kwamtsogolo. Chofunika kwambiri ndikuzindikiritsa momwe maubwenzi pakati pa ogwiritsira ntchito zolaula ndi malingaliro akugonana, kudzilimbitsa, ndi machitidwe ali akulu kapena ang'ono, komanso mitundu ya achinyamata omwe maubwenzi awa omwe maubwenzi omwe ali osiyana kwambiri.
Kuunika Kwazotsatira Zotsatira
Ndemanga zathu zaka 20 zapitazi za kafukufuku pa achinyamata komanso zolaula zawonetsa kuti achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula ngakhale kuchuluka kwawo kukusiyana kwambiri. Omwe amakonda kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pazaka zachinyamata ndi amuna, achinyamata omwe amafunafuna chisangalalo atakula kwambiri ali ndi ubale wofooka kapena wamabanja. Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kumalumikizidwa ndi malingaliro olowerera ogonana komanso zikhulupiriro zamphamvu zogonana. Zithunzi zolaula zomwe achinyamata amachita zimagwirizananso ndi zochitika zogonana, zokumana nazo zambiri zakugonana, komanso zachiwerewere, pokhudzana ndi kuzunza komanso kuzunza. Mosiyana ndi kuwunikiranso koyambirira kwamutuwu (Owens et al., 2012,, kuwunika kwathu kukuwonetsa kuti, pakadali pano, umboni wina wophatikizira ukulimbitsa za olosera za kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa zolaula ndikuyenderana kwake ndi malingaliro a kugonana komanso chikhalidwe. Komabe, umboniwu ndiwowonetseratu, chifukwa umafunika kutanthauzira molingana ndi zophophonya zinayi ndi tsankho linanso linanso m'mabuku.
Zofooka
Kulephera koyamba m'mabuku onena za achinyamata ndi zolaula kukukhudza kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Monga tikuonera Gulu 1, ofufuza agwiritsa ntchito zolaula m'njira zosiyanasiyana, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti zovuta zikhale zovuta kufananiza. Kugwiritsa ntchito mosiyanasiyana, mwachitsanzo, pamitundu yogwiritsa ntchito (mwachitsanzo, mwadala, mwadala, kugwiritsa ntchito kulikonse); nthawi yomwe ntchito ikuyesedwa (mwachitsanzo, masiku 30 apitawo, miyezi isanu ndi umodzi yapitayi, chaka chatha, kale); kaya zomwe zikuyang'ana kwambiri zolaula kapena mitundu ina; ndi ngati Playboy-unansi wophatikizidwa umaphatikizidwa pakuwunika kwa zolaula pafupi ndi zinthu zina zowoneka bwino (mwachitsanzo, Lo et al., 1999; Van Ouytsel et al., 2014; Ybarra et al., 2011). Chifukwa chake tikufuna kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula mosawerengeka. Moyenera, njira zotere ndi zodziwika bwino, koma potengera kusiyanasiyana kwa zikhalidwe za zolaula komanso kugonana, zambiri zimapezeka pokhapokha miyeso itafananizidwa pazikhalidwe zosiyanasiyana. Pankhaniyi, ndikofunikanso kuti achinyamata azigwiritsa ntchito intaneti mwachangu.
Mukamapanga ndi kutsimikizira njira izi ndikofunikira kuti muyesenso ndikuwona zomwe achinyamata amawonetsa akamagwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Owens et al. (2012) tanena kale kuti sitimadziwa chilichonse chokhudza zomwe achinyamata amakumana nazo akamaonera zolaula. Zaka zingapo pambuyo pake, timaona kuti nkhaniyi siinathebe. Pakadali pano, tikudziwa kuchokera pa kafukufuku umodzi wokha yemwe akuwonetsa kuti achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso mitundu yambiri ya zolaula (Rothman et al., 2015). Ybarra et al.'s (2011) Komabe, werengani kuti izi ndizofunika: Chiwerewere chimakhudzana ndikuonera zolaula zokha koma osati kuonera zolaula. Pokhapokha titafufuza mwatsatanetsatane zolaula zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito sitingamvetsetse chifukwa chake achinyamata amakopeka, kapena kutengeka, ndi zolaula komanso momwe zimakhudzirana ndi malingaliro awo azakugonana, kudzikulitsa okha, ndi machitidwe awo.
Kulephera kwachiwiri kumatanthauza kuchuluka kwa mapangidwe azigawo m'munda. Ngakhale, kwakukulu, kafukufuku wochulukirapo akuwoneka wolimba potengera momwe kafukufukuyu akuyendera komanso kayendetsedwe kake komanso kuchuluka kwa mayankho ndi mayankho, kuwongolera kwamitundu ingapo kumalepheretsa zonena zakugonana pakati pa zolaula ndi malingaliro azakugonana, kudzikulitsa, komanso machitidwe . Ngakhale kuchuluka kwamapangidwe akutali kumawonjezera kukhazikika kwa mabuku, mapangidwe oterowo samathetsa vutoli. Sikuti timangokhala ndi umboni wotsimikizira kuchokera kumayesero oyeserera, koma tifunikanso kusamalira mwadongosolo kuwongolera zosintha pakuwunika chifukwa m'mapangidwe akutali mayanjano abodza amathanso chifukwa cha kulumikizana kwa kafukufukuyu. Kafukufuku wambiri wazaka zambiri amakhala ndi zovuta zakumapeto ndipo maphunziro ena amaphatikizaponso zowonjezera zowongolera (onani, komabe, kuwunika kwaposachedwa kwazovuta zaku Hamaker, Kuiper, & Grasman, 2015). Kwakukulukulu, kugwiritsa ntchito mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya maulamuliro kumawoneka ngati kukuwongoleredwa ndi kulingaliranaku komanso kupezeka kwa zosinthika m'malo mopitilira muyeso wamalingaliro ndi malingaliro. Kuphatikiza apo, ndi owerengeka ochepa okha mpaka pano omwe adaganizapo kusintha kosiyanasiyana kwachikhalidwe, monga chidwi cha kugonana / kuyendetsa galimoto komanso kusasinthasintha, monga kusintha kosinthika. Zosiyanasiyana zachilengedwe, monga testosterone kapena cortisol, sizinaphunzitsidwe kwambiri. Poganizira mapanga ofunikira awa, zikuwoneka kuti sizinafike nthawi kumasulira maubwenzi omwe akhazikitsidwa muchiwonetserochi poganiza kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kumayambitsa kusintha pamalingaliro ogonana, kudzilimbitsa, ndi machitidwe.
Chosowa chachitatu chofunikira pakufufuza kwaposachedwa komwe kumalepheretsa kumvetsetsa kozama za zolaula za achinyamata ndikugwiritsa ntchito zomwe zikubweretsa ndiko kusowa kwa malingaliro apamwamba kwambiri. Tinakonza zolembazo pamalingaliro amtundu wophatikizika waposachedwa kuchokera pazofufuza zama media, DSMM (Valkenburg & Peter, 2013). Ndi chithunzichi, tinayesera kulinganiza onse owonetseratu zolaula, komanso magwiridwe antchito ndi oyang'anira omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Mogwirizana ndi malingaliro oyamba a DSMM, tidazindikira mitundu yosiyanasiyana yokhudza kutulutsa zolaula, kutukula, komanso chidziwitso cha zolaula. Komabe, umboni wazomwe zimayambira (kufotokozera kwachiwiri kwa DSMM) ndi oyang'anira mabungwe ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula (mawonekedwe atatu a DSMM) komanso ubale wamachitidwe (malingaliro anayi a DSMM) sanasoweke ndipo, ngati akupezeka, sagwirizana. Kafukufuku adapereka malingaliro oyamba pazakuzindikira, kutengeka, komanso chisangalalo kumati kuyanjana pakati pa kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi malingaliro olola, zikhulupiriro zakugonana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi, komanso chitukuko chogonana. Komabe, tikusowa chidziwitso chambiri chokhudza mayankho ochokera pamaphunziro angapo kapena mayankho ambiri, opangidwa muntchito zosiyanasiyana komanso ofufuza osiyanasiyana kuti amve zowona ndi zodalirika za zotsatira zomwe zilipo. Kafukufuku wokhudza zoyeserera, zachitukuko, komanso zamagulu ogwiritsira ntchito zolaula amagwiritsidwa ntchito pakalipano kwa oyang'anira osankhidwa mwangozi omwe ali ndi zotsatira zosagwirizana m'malo pulogalamu yofufuzira mwatsatanetsatane. Pomaliza, kafukufuku sanayang'anire kwambiri mgwirizano wamtundu pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Kafukufuku akuwunikira kwambiri chidwi chomwe chimapangitsa kuti anthu azigwiritsa ntchito zolaula pazikhalidwe zogonana, kudzilimbitsa pakudzigonana, ndi machitidwe, koma zochepa kwambiri ku funso lofunikiralo loti lingaliro la kugonana, kudzikulitsa, ndi machitidwe zingakhale zokhudzana ndi zolaula gwiritsani ntchito m'njira zosinthanirana.
Kuperewera kwa malingaliro apamwamba kwambiri pakufufuza kwaposachedwa komanso kusowa kwa zotsatira zofunikira kuli ndi zovuta zingapo. Pambuyo pazaka 20 zakufufuza, tikudziwabe zochepa chifukwa chake zolaula zimagwiritsidwa ntchito, mwachitsanzo, malingaliro azikhalidwe zakugonana. Komabe, osadziwa chifukwa chake kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kumalumikizidwa ndi zosintha zina, sitingathe kuthana ndi mayanjano osayenera ndikulimbikitsa omwe akufuna. Kuphatikiza apo, sitikudziwa kuti ndi mitundu iti ya achinyamata yomwe zolaula zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri - ndipo ndi mitundu iti ya achinyamata yomwe ali ofooka kapena osakhalapo. Monga kuyerekezera kuchuluka kwa kafukufuku wofufuza zikuwonetsa, ena mwamafunso ofunikira ofunika kwambiri amafufuza pa nkhani ya yemwe ali wolimba mtima pa mauthenga azolaula komanso amene atengeke. Pomalizira, tilibe umboni wokhudzana ndi zolaula zomwe zingagwiritsidwe ntchito zingatanthauzidwe ngati zochitika zambiri (mwachitsanzo, zogulitsa) osati monga zosagwirizana komanso zosagwirizana. Mikangano yambiri pagulu yokhudza momwe achinyamata amagwiritsira ntchito zolaula amakonda kudalira monkey-see-monkey-lingaliro losavuta la momwe achinyamata amathana ndi zolaula komanso momwe zimawakhudzira. Kuti mudziwitse zokambirana ngati izi, chidziwitso chokhudzana ndi zochitika zolaula chimafunikira.
Cholakwitsa chachinayi chimakhala pakakhala kuti alibe chitukuko chenicheni. Ndikukhwima m'mimba, kuwunikaku kunawonetsa chithunzithunzi cha chitukuko cha zolaula za achinyamata. Kafukufuku awiri adalongosola gawo laling'ono lakusintha kwamankhwala otsekemera (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2013b) komanso zachiwerewere (Peter & Valkenburg, 2009b) pamalingaliro azomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Komabe, sitimvetsa kuti kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kumatanthauza chiyani kwa achinyamata pamalingaliro azachilendo azomwe amazindikira, momwe akumvera, komanso zosintha zomwe achinyamata amakumana nazo akamakula.
Poterepa, zikuwonekeranso kuti ndikofunikira kufananizira momwe achinyamata ndi achikulire amagwiritsira ntchito zolaula komanso tanthauzo lake m'magulu awiriwa. Kafukufuku wosowa akusonyeza kuti achikulire ndi achinyamata samasiyana pakagwiritsidwe ntchito ka zolaula pa intaneti (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011d). Komabe, mayanjano omwe amapezeka pakati pa zolaula komanso machitidwe achiwerewere owopsa komanso malingaliro ena okhudzana ndi jenda (kukana kwamphamvu) amapezeka pakati pa achikulire koma osati pakati pa achinyamata (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011b, 2011c). Nthawi yomweyo, zotsatira za mayanjano omwe ali pakati pa achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso malingaliro olola kugonana zimawonekeranso ndi kafukufuku waposachedwa wokhudza kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa zolaula kwa akulu (mwachitsanzo, Wright, 2013, 2014a). Chifukwa chake sizikudziwika ngati kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kumakhudzanso achinyamata kapena achikulire. Kufananiza kwatsatanetsatane pakati pa achinyamata ndi achikulire mwina kumatha kukulitsa kamvedwe kakang'ono ka zolaula osati nthawi yayitali.
Kukondera
Kuphatikiza pa zolephera zaposachedwa kwambiri m'mabuku apano a achinyamata ndi zolaula, palinso kusankhana kwakali m'mbali zambiri za kafukufukuyo (onaninso Peter, 2013). Choyamba, kafukufuku ali ndi vuto la chikhalidwe. Zoposa magawo awiri mwa zitatu za zomwe tidawunikirazi zidachokera ku Europe, North America, kapena Australia. Komanso, 63% ya zolemba zidachokera kumaiko ochepa okha (mwachitsanzo, Netherlands, United States, Sweden, Hong Kong / China, ndi Belgium). Ngakhale zisanu zomwe tidalemba zidakhudza maiko a ku Africa, sitikhala ndi chidziwitso chofanana ndi cha Africa monga momwe timadziwira za Europe, North America, ndi mayiko ena aku Asia, makamaka Hong Kong / China ndi Taiwan. Sitikudziwabe chilichonse chokhudza achinyamata ndi zolaula ku Central ndi South America, mayiko angapo aku Asia, Russia, ndi Middle East (kupatula Israeli).
Zotsatira zakuwunikiraku zikuwonekeranso chifukwa cha kusiyana kwa chikhalidwe pakati pa achinyamata pazogonana ndi amuna ndi akazi kumayiko omwe amachita kafukufuku wokhudza zolaula za achinyamata. Mwachitsanzo, Netherlands ndi Sweden, zimadziwika ndi njira zovomerezeka zokhudzana ndi kugonana kwa achinyamata komanso zolaula. Kulimbikira kwambiri kuchokera kumayiko awiriwa pazotsatira zonse zowunikirazi kungalepheretse kufalitsa zomwe tapeza kumayiko osunga zogonana. Chifukwa chake tikufuna chidziwitso kuchokera kumaiko osiyanasiyana, makamaka kuchokera ku kafukufuku wofufuza mayiko onse, kuti timvetsetse zovuta zomwe zikhalidwe za achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula.
Chachiwiri, kafukufuku waposachedwa ali ndi kukondera kwa heteronormativity. Kupatula chimodzi chokha (Arrington-Sanders et al., 2015), maphunziro onse amayang'ana kwambiri zachiwerewere ndipo, chifukwa chake, adafufuza zinthu zomwe nthawi zambiri zimatsimikizira kugonana komwe kumagonana. Ngakhale kafukufuku wina wapeza kuti achinyamata amagonana amuna kapena akazi okhaokha amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula nthawi zambiri kuposa achinyamata omwe amakhala amuna kapena akazi okhaokha (Luder et al., 2011; Peter & Valkenburg, 2011d), kudziwa kwathu zantchito, tanthauzo, ndi tanthauzo la kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pakati pa achinyamata ogonana amuna kapena akazi okhaokha, ndi achinyamata. Kutengera ndi zomwe anapeza a Arrington-Sanders et al. (2015), Komabe, zonena zambiri zakufufuza zamakono zitha kuwululidwa pofotokoza za achinyamata omwe si amuna kapena akazi okhaokha.
Chachitatu, kafukufuku amene tidawunikirawu amakhala ndi malingaliro osakondera, oganizira kwambiri za ngozi ndi zoopsa zogwiritsa ntchito zolaula za achinyamata mmalo mongokhala mwayi ndi zotulukapo zabwino za kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula, monga kusangalala ndi kugonana (mwachitsanzo, Tsaliki, 2011). Cholinga cha kafukufuku pa zovuta zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pakuwonera zolaula zitha kukhala zomveka pazoganiza zawo komanso zofunikira pazikhalidwe zokhudzana ndi chikhalidwe. Komabe, kuti mumve malingaliro omwe achinyamata amafalitsa zolaula, zikuwoneka ngati zofunikira kufunsa ngati kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula zitha kuphatikizidwa, mwachitsanzo, ndi chidziwitso chachikulu cha kugonana (kupatula izi, onani To et al., 2012), kudzidalira pa kugonana, kapena kudzidalira. Mafunso oterewa amathanso kuthandizira kukayikira kopanda tanthauzo pakufufuza kwakanthawi koti achinyamata amakhala pachiwopsezo cha kutumiziridwa zolaula. Sikuti kungoganiza za achinyamata omwe ali pachiwopsezo kumawakana kuyanjana ndi maluso awo (Buckingham & Bragg, 2004), zikuwonekeranso kuti zikusemphana ndi kafukufuku waposachedwa yemwe amafanizira achinyamata ndi achikulire ndikupeza mayanjano pakati pa zolaula ndi zikhulupiriro zotsutsana ndi jenda komanso machitidwe achiwerewere pakati pa akulu okha (Peter & Valkenburg, 2011b, 2011c).
Chachinayi, kafukufuku waposachedwa pankhani yogwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata ndiwosakondera momwe ziliri. Kafukufuku ambiri amanyalanyaza kuti kusinthika kwa kugonana kwaunyamata ndi gawo la kusintha kwakukulu pamakhalidwe ndi chikhalidwe, mwachitsanzo, kukhazikika kwa maubale ndi malingaliro azakugonana komanso kusankha kwa kugonana, makamaka m'maiko ambiri akumadzulo. Kugonana kwaunyamata sikumayang'aniridwanso mokwanira ndi akuluakulu azikhalidwe koma, mwina, ndi funso lazomwe amakonda komanso zosangalatsa (Attwood & Smith, 2011). Mu malingaliro awa, mayanjano omwe amapezeka pakati pa ogwiritsira ntchito zolaula ndi malingaliro olekerera, kusatsimikizika pakugonana, zomwe zimachitika komanso pafupipafupi machitidwe ogonana, komanso zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana komweko zitha (kumvekanso) kumvetsetseka ngati gawo limodzi pakusintha kwachikhalidwe.
Kafukufuku Wotsatira
Kuchokera pazolakwika zosiyanasiyana m'mabuku, zofunikira zingapo za kafukufuku wamtsogolo zitha kupezeka. Choyamba, maphunziro owonjezera autali amafunikira, limodzi ndi mwadongosolo, mwaumboni komanso mwamphamvu. Munkhaniyi, titha kufunikanso kuganizira za kuphunzira kwa zaka zautali zomwe zingatenge zaka zingapo kuti tiwone zomwe achinyamata akuchita pa zolaula. Zowoneka bwino, maphunziro autali amayenera kulumikizidwa ndi kafukufuku woyesera pakati pa achinyamata kuti athe kuthana ndi mafunso okakamira. Kuphatikiza apo, zikuwoneka ngati zanzeru kupewa maphunziro omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zitsanzo zosavuta ndikuvomera kafukufuku malinga ndi zitsanzozo pokhapokha kuwonetsedwa kuti sakusankha pazotsatira.
Chachiwiri, mundawo uyenera kudzipereka pakumanga ndi kuyesa malingaliro. Kafukufuku wowerengeka amatengera kulingalira kwakanthawi kofananira komanso kuzolowera mwatsatanetsatane m'malo motengera malingaliro omwe akhazikitsidwa ngati chofunikira pakufufuza kwawo. Ochita kafukufuku wamtsogolo, chifukwa chake, akuyenera kuyesa kuyesa kuphatikiza mfundo zamalingaliro zomwe zimawongolera kafukufuku ndikuchepetsa ndikusintha malingaliro ambirimbiri omwe akuphunziridwa pano. M'mbuyomu, tinapereka mtundu umodzi wophatikiza, DSMM (Valkenburg & Peter, 2013), yomwe yagwiritsidwa ntchito mu kafukufuku waposachedwa (Beyens et al., 2015; Vanden Abeele et al., 2014) ndipo atha kutsogolera kafukufuku wamtsogolo. Komabe, machitidwe ena, monga media media model (Steele & Brown, 1995), machitidwe azogonana (Byrne, 1976; Fisher, 1986), kapena mtundu wa 3A (Wright, 2014b,, ndiyothandizanso.
Chachitatu, kafukufuku ayenera kuyang'ana kwambiri zomwe zili pazolaula zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito. Tiyenera kudziwa kuchuluka ndi zoneneratu za kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula zofanana ndi zomwe tikudziwa pano pakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Munkhaniyi, titha kufunikanso kuphunzira kuti ndi zinthu zochuluka motani zomwe zingakonde.
Chachinayi, chifukwa cha kusintha kwakukulu paunyamata, Kafukufuku wamtsogolo akuyenera kuyang'anira njira zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula. Poyerekeza ndi a mibadwo ina, monga (achichepere) achikulire atha kupititsa patsogolo chidziwitso chathu ngati achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso zomwe zingawakhudze pazaka za m'badwo uno kapena zingagwiritsidwe ntchito m'magulu azaka zina.
Lachisanu, tikuyenera kusiyiratu kafukufuku wa achinyamata ndi zolaula mwamphamvu kuposa momwe zilili masiku ano. Monga tawonetsera, zomwe tikudziwa pano zikusangalatsidwa ndi maiko olemera a Kumadzulo kapena Western. Ngakhale m'maiko angapo mdziko lino lapansi zolaula ndizosavomerezeka ndipo ndizovuta kwambiri kuziwerenga, ngati sizotheka, tikhulupirira kuyang'ana kosiyanasiyana pa achinyamata ndi zolaula zimatsutsa ndikulemeretsa zomwe tikudziwa pano pankhaniyi.
Chachisanu ndi chimodzi, ofufuza akuyenera kuyang'ana kwambiri kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pakati pa achinyamata ogonana amuna kapena akazi okhaokha, amuna kapena akazi okhaokha, ofanana ndi kafukufuku yemwe adachitika pakati pa akulu (mwachitsanzo, Duggan & McCreary, 2004; Wolemba, Nilsen, & Stigum, 2006). Monga Arrington-Sanders et al. (2015) ndanena, kupezeka kwa chidziwitso chakugonana, chidziwitso cha zolemba zogonana, komanso chidaliro chazomwe zimagona pazakugonana ndizosiyana kwa achinyamata omwe ndi amuna kapena akazi okhaokha, zomwe zimakhudza momwe amawonera zolaula.
Chachisanu ndi chiwiri, gululi liyenera kukhala lotseguka ku mafunso okhudzana ndi zomwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito pakuwonera zolaula, makamaka chisangalalo chogonana, ndikuyankha mwamphamvu zokhudzana ndi chiwerewere komanso kuthana ndi zolaula. Pokhapokha titakhala ndi malingaliro ochulukirachulukira pakugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata zomwe tingapangire kuti timvetsetse bwino zomwe zolaula zikutanthauza kwa achinyamata.
Wachisanu ndi chitatu komanso pomaliza, pamlingo wazowonera, tiyenera kuphunzira kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula za achinyamata machitidwe azikhalidwe zazikulu. Mitsutso yambiri yokhudza achinyamata ndi zolaula ingapindule poganizira momwe achinyamata amagwiritsa ntchito zolaula ngati gawo la zinthu zazikulu zomwe zikuchitika m'malo mongokhala zodabwitsa zake zokha.
Pomaliza, kafukufuku wokhudza achinyamata komanso zolaula zawonjezeka kwambiri m'zaka zapitazi za 20, makamaka pamlingo wopatsa chidwi. M'malingaliro athu, komabe, kafukufuku wamtsogolo akuyenera kuthana ndi zinthu zisanu ndi zitatu zomwe zatchulidwazi kuti chidziwitso chathu chokhudza achinyamata ndi zolaula zizikhala zolimba, zophunzitsidwa bwino, komanso zopanda tsankho komanso omasuka. Tikukhulupirira kuti izi ndizofunikira osati kungolimbikitsa mkangano wamaphunziro okhudzana ndi zolaula komanso achinyamata komanso kuti tidziwitse anthu bwinobwino.
Zowonjezerapo
Zowonjezera pazowonjezera izi zitha kupezeka ndikupezeka pazosindikiza Webusayiti.
Zakumapeto
Zothandizira
- Abiala, K., & Hernwall, P. (2013). Tweens akulankhulana zachinsinsi pa intaneti: Masewera a atsikana a ku Sweden ndi anyamata omwe akukumana nawo pa intaneti. Journal of Youth Studies, 16 (8), 951-969. do:10.1080/13676261.2013.780124
,
- Anderson, CA, & Bushman, BJ (2002). Chiwawa chaumunthu. Kukambirana Kwapachaka kwa Psychology, 53, 27-51. do:10.1146 / annurev.psych.53.100901.135231
,
- Arrington-Sanders, R., Harper, GW, Morgan, A., Ogunbajo, A., Trent, M., & Fortenberry, JD (2015). Udindo wokhudzana ndi kugonana pa chitukuko cha kugonana kwa amuna amnyamata akuda okondana ndi amuna okhaokha. Zilembedwa Zotsatira Zogonana, 44 (3), 597-608. do:10.1007 / s10508-014-0416-x
,
- Attwood, F., & Smith, C. (2011). Kufufuza zachikhalidwe cha achinyamata: Kutsegulira. kugonana Education, 11 (3), 235-242. do:10.1080/14681811.2011.590040
,
- Atwood, KA, Zimmerman, R., Cupp, PK, Fongkaew, W., Miller, BA, Byrnes, HF, ... Chookhare, W. (2012). Zogonana zamakhalidwe oyipa, zolinga, komanso kuyambitsa kugonana pakati pa achinyamata a ku Thailand. Journal of Early Adolescence, 32 (3), 364-386. do:10.1177/0272431610393248
,
- Bandura, A. (2009). Maganizo othandizira anthu kuti azitha kumvetsetsa kapena kulankhulana kwachisawawa, mu J. Bryant & MB Oliver (Eds.), Zotsatira zowonjezera: Kupititsa patsogolo pa mfundo ndi kafukufuku (pp. 94-124). New York, NY: Taylor ndi Francis.
- Beebe, TJ, Harrison, PA, McRae, JA, Anderson, RE, & Fulkerson, JA (1998). Kuunika kwa mafunsowo okhudzana ndi makompyuta mu sukulu. Maganizo a Pagulu Paokha, 62 (4), 623-632. do:10.1086/297863
,
- Bekele, AB, Van Aken, MAG, & Dubas, JS (2011). Mchitidwe wogwiriridwa pakati pa azimayi ophunzira aku sekondale aku East ku East. Chiwawa ndi Ozunzidwa, 26 (5), 608-630. do:10.1891 / 0886-6708.26.5.608
,
- Beyens, I., Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2015). Achinyamata achichepere akuwonetsedwa zolaula pa intaneti: maubale okhathamira ndi nthawi yake, kufunafuna chidwi, komanso maphunziro. Journal of Early Adolescence, 35 (8), 1045-1068. do:10.1177/0272431614548069
,
- Bleakley, A., Khalid, M., & Nsomba, M. (2011). Chitsanzo cha achinyamata chofuna kugonana pazosankha zawo. Journal of Research Research, 48 (4), 309-315. do:10.1080/00224499.2010.497985
,
- Chimake, ZD, & Hagedorn, WB (2015). Amuna achichepere komanso oonera zolaula masiku ano: Zotsatira za alangizi a banja ndi abambo. Family Journal, 23 (1), 82-89. do:10.1177/1066480714555672
,
- Bogale, A., & Seme, A. (2014). Zochita zogonana asanakwatirane komanso olosera zamtsogolo pakati pa achinyamata a pasukulu ya Shendi, West Gojjam zone, kumpoto chakumadzulo kwa Ethiopia. Zaumoyo, 11, 49. do:10.1186/1742-4755-11-49
,
- Bonino, S., Ciairano, S., Rabaglietti, E., & Cattelino, E. (2006). Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula komanso kudziwonetsera nokha kuchitirana chiwawa pakati pa achinyamata. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 3 (3), 265-288. do:10.1080/17405620600562359
,
- Bradburn, NM, Sudman, S., & Wansink, B. (2004). Kufunsa mafunso: Buku lothandizira lolemba maphunziro a mafunso: Kufufuza kwa msika, zisankho za ndale, ndi mafunso okhudza zachikhalidwe ndi zaumoyo (Rev. ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
- Brown, JD (2011). Atolankhani amachita kanthu: Ndemanga za Steinberg ndi Monahan (2011). Psychology Developmental, 47 (2), 580-581. do:10.1037 / A0022553
,
- Brown, JD, & L'Engle, KL (2009). Werenganinso: Maganizo ndi zikhalidwe za kugonana zomwe zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi achinyamata a US akunyamata kuti azitha kufotokoza zolaula. Research Research, 36 (1), 129-151. do:10.1177/0093650208326465
,
- Buckingham, D., & Bragg, S. (2004). Achinyamata, kugonana, ndi media: Zowonadi za moyo? Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
,
- Buzwell, S., & Rosenthal, D. (1996). Kupanga kugonana: Maganizo okhudzana ndi kugonana ndi achinyamata komanso kutenga chiopsezo cha kugonana. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6(4), 489-513.
,
- Byrne, D. (1976). Psychology yamagulu ndi kuphunzira zamakhalidwe azogonana. Makhalidwe Athu ndi Psychology Bulletin, 3(1), 3-30. do:10.1177/014616727600300102
,
- Cameron, KA, Salazar, LF, Bernhardt, JM, Burgess-Whitman, N., Wingood, GM, & DiClemente, RJ (2005). Zochitika za achinyamata ndi kugonana pa intaneti: Zotsatira kuchokera m'magulu otsogolera pa intaneti. Journal of Adolescence, 28 (4), 535-540. do:10.1016 / j.adolescence.2004.10.00
,
- Casadevall, A., & Fang, FC (2010). Sayansi yotulutsa. Matenda ndi Chitetezo Chokwanira, 78 (12), 4972-4975. do:10.1128 / IAI.00908-10
,
- Chen, A.-S., Leung, M., Chen, C.-, & Yang, SC (2013). Kuonera zithunzi zolaula pa achinyamata a ku Taiwan. Makhalidwe aumunthu ndi umunthu, 41 (1), 157-164. do:10.2224 / sbp.2013.41.1.157
,
- Cheng, S., Ma, J., & Missari, S. (2014). Zotsatira za kugwiritsira ntchito pa intaneti pachibwenzi choyamba cha kugonana ndi kugonana ku Taiwan. International Sociology, 29 (4), 324-347. do:10.1177/0268580914538084
,
- Cohen, J. (1988). Kusanthula mphamvu zamatsenga kwa sayansi ya khalidwe (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Cowan, G., & Campbell, RR (1995). Khalidwe lapauchifwamba pakati pa achinyamata. Journal of Research Research, 32 (2), 145-153. do:10.1080/00224499509551784
,
- Davis, V. (2012). Amagwirizanitsa koma osatetezedwa? Njira za makolo ndi zolinga zopezera chidziwitso pa nkhani za chitetezo cha digito. Cyberpsychology, makhalidwe, ndi Social Networking, 15 (12), 669-674. do:10.1089 / cyber.2012.0179
,
- Dombrowski, SC, Gischlar, KL, & Durst, T. (2007). Kuteteza achinyamata kuchoka pa zolaula ndi kugonana: Kuvuta kwambiri pa intaneti. Kukambirana Kwachinyengo kwa Ana, 16 (3), 153-170. do:10.1002 / galimoto.939
,
- Dong, F., Cao, F., Cheng, P., Cui, N., & Li, Y. (2013). Kuyambukira ndi zina zogwirizana ndi kuzunzidwa kwa unyamata kwa achinyamata aku China. Scandinavia Journal of Psychology, 54 (5), 415-422. do:10.1111 / sjop.12059
,
- Doornwaard, SM, Bickham, DS, Wolemera, M., ter Bogt, TFM, & van den Eijnden, RJJM (2015). Kugwiritsa ntchito kwa achinyamata pazinthu zolaula pa intaneti komanso malingaliro awo ndi chikhalidwe chawo: Kukula ndi kufanana. Psychology Developmental, 51 (10), 1476-1488. do:10.1037 / dev0000040
,
- Doornwaard, SM, van den Eijnden, RJJM, Overbeek, G., & ter Bogt, TFM (2015). Mafotokozedwe osiyana a achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zinthu zolaula pa Intaneti. Journal of Research Research, 52 (3), 269-281. do:10.1080/00224499.2013.866195
,
- Duggan, SJ, & McCreary, DR (2004). Chithunzi cha thupi, mavuto azakudya, komanso kuyendetsa minofu kwa amuna ogonana amuna kapena akazi okhaokha: Mphamvu ya zithunzi. Zolemba Pazakugonana, 47 (3-4), 45-58. do:10.1300/J082v47n03_03
,
- Fisher, WA (1986). Njira yakukhudzana ndi kugonana kwa anthu: Mgwirizano wamakhalidwe, mu D. Byrne & K. Kelley (Eds.), Njira zina zophunzirira za kugonana (pp. 131-171). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Madzi osefukira, M. (2007). Kuwonetsa zolaula pakati pa achinyamata ku Australia. Journal of Sociology, 43 (1), 45-60. do:10.1177/1440783307073934
,
- Häggström-Nordin, E., Borneskog, C., Eriksson, M., & Tydén, T. (2011). Kugonana ndikugwiritsa ntchito njira zakulera pakati pa ophunzira aku Sweden apamwamba mumizinda iwiri: Kuyerekeza pakati pa amuna ndi akazi, mapulogalamu owerengera, komanso nthawi yayitali. European Journal of Contraception and Reproduction Health Care: Official Journal of the European Society of Contraception, 16 (1), 36-46. do:10.3109/13625187.2010.536922
,
- Hamaker, EL, Kuiper, RM, & Grasman, RPPP (2015). Chidzudzulo cha mtanda wopalasa mtanda. Njira Za zamaganizo, 20 (1), 102-116. do:10.1037 / a0038889
,
- Hardy, SA, Steelman, MA, Coyne, SM, & Ridge, RD (2013). Kulambira kwachinyamata kumatetezera kuonera zolaula. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 34 (3), 131-139. do:10.1016 / j.appdev.2012.12.002
,
- Kuthira, PA, Scheier, LM, & Ben Abdallah, A. (2011). Maphunziro atatu omaliza aunyamata wachinyamata komanso zomwe zingaike pachiwopsezo mgulu lililonse. Makhalidwe Okhwima, 37 (1), 19-35. do:10.1002 / ab.20365
,
- Hayes, AF (2005). Njira zogwiritsira ntchito sayansi. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Holt, TJ, Bwana, AM, & Meyi, DC (2012). Kudziletsa kocheperako, mayanjano osokoneza anzako, komanso achinyamata ogwirira ntchito pa intaneti. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 37 (3), 378-395. do:10.1007/s12103-011-9117-3
,
- Jones, LM, Mitchell, KJ, & Finkelhor, D. (2012). Zochita pakukhudzidwa kwa achinyamata pa intaneti: Zotsatira za achinyamata atatu pa intaneti zofufuza za 2000-2010. Journal of Health Adolescent, 50 (2), 179-186. do:10.1016 / j.jadohealth.2011.09.015
,
- Kadri, N., Chikwawa, R., Kendili, I., Khoubila, A., & Moussaoui, D. (2013). Zogwiritsa pa intaneti komanso zogonana ku Morocco, kuyambira zizolowezi za cyber kupita ku psychopathology. Zogonana, 22 (2), e49-e53. do:10.1016 / j.sexol.2012.08.006
,
- Kail, RV, & Cavanaugh, JC (2010). Kukula kwaumunthu: Maonekedwe a moyo (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Kuphunzira Kuphunzira.
- Kim, Y.H. (2001). Achinyamata aku Korea omwe ali pachiwopsezo pamavuto azomwe amachita komanso ubale wawo ndi osankhidwa a malingaliro. Journal of Health Adolescent, 29 (4), 298-306. do:10.1016/S1054-139X(01)00218-X
,
- Kim, Y.H. (2011). Makhalidwe aumoyo wa achinyamata ndi mayanjano ake omwe amasinthasintha zochitika. Central European Journal of Public Health, 19 (4), 205-209.
,
- Wachibale, J., Nyanzi, S., & Pool, R. (2000). Kusonkhana ndi kufunika kwa kugonana: Zimene zinachitikira atsikana akusukulu akusukulu kumidzi ya Masaka, Uganda. Chikhalidwe, Umoyo, ndi Kugonana, 2 (2), 151-166. do:10.1080/136910500300778
,
- Lavoie, F., Robitaille, L., & Herbert, M. (2000). Achinyamata ali pachibwenzi chibwenzi ndi chiwawa: Kufufuza kufufuza. Chiwawa kwa Akazi, 6 (1), 6-36. do:10.1177/10778010022181688
,
- Onani, V., Neilan, E., Dzuwa, M., & Chiang, S. (1999). Kuwonetsa achinyamata a ku Taiwan akuonera zolaula komanso zomwe zimakhudza kugonana ndi khalidwe. Kuyankhula kwa Asia Journal, 9 (1), 50-71. do:10.1080/01292989909359614
,
- Onani, V., & Wei, R. (2005). Kuonera zolaula pa Intaneti ndi achinyamata a ku Taiwan omwe ali ndi chikhalidwe chogonana. Journal of Broadcasting ndi Electronic Media, 49 (2), 221-237. do:10.1207 / s15506878jobem4902_5
,
- Lofgren-Mårtenson, L., & Månsson, S.-A. (2010). Kusilira, chikondi, ndi moyo: Kafukufuku woyesera wazomwe achinyamata aku Sweden akuwona komanso zomwe adakumana nazo zolaula. Journal of Research Research, 47 (6), 568-579. do:10.1080/00224490903151374
,
- Lopez, JR, Mukaire, PE, & Mataya, RH (2015). Makhalidwe aubwenzi wokhudzana ndi kugonana komanso kubereka ndi chikhalidwe choopsa pamagawo awiri akumidzi ku Cambodia. Zaumoyo, 12, 83. do:10.1186/s12978-015-0052-5
,
- Luder, M.T., Pittet, I., Berchtold, A., Akre, C., Michaud, P.-A., & Suris, J.-C. (2011). Kuyanjana pakati pa zolaula pa intaneti ndi machitidwe ogonana pakati pa achinyamata: Zabodza kapena zenizeni? Zilembedwa Zotsatira Zogonana, 40 (5), 1027-1035. do:10.1007/s10508-010-9714-0
,
- Ma, CMS, & Shek, DTL (2013). Kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa zolaula kwa achinyamata ku Hong Kong. Journal of Matenda a Matenda a Ana ndi Achinyamata, 26 (Suppl. 3), S18-25. do:10.1016 / j.jpag.2013.03.011
,
- Malamuth, NM, Addison, T., & Koss, M. (2000). Zithunzi zolaula ndi zachiwawa: Kodi pali zotsatira zodalirika ndipo kodi tingathe kuzimvetsa? Kukambirana Kwapachaka kafukufuku wa kugonana, 11, 26-91. do:10.1080/10532528.2000.10559784
,
- Malamuth, NM, & Mbira, M. (2005). Zithunzi zolaula ndi achinyamata: Kufunika kwa kusiyana kwake. Makanema Achichepere Amankhwala, 16(2), 315-326. do:10.1016 / j.admecli.2005.02.004
,
- Manaf, MRA, Tahir, MM, Sidi, H., Midin, M., Nik Jaafar, NR, Das, S., & Malek, AMA (2014). Kugonana musanalowe muukwati komanso zomwe zimanenedweratu pakati pa achinyamata aku Malaysia. Kusamalitsa Kwambiri, 55 (Suppl. 1), S82-88. do:10.1016 / j.comppsych.2013.03.008
,
- Marston, C., & Lewis, R. (2014). Anal heterosex pakati pa achinyamata ndi zofunikira pa chitukuko cha thanzi: Kuphunzira kwabwino ku UK. BMJ Open, 4 (8), e004996. do:10.1136 / bmjopen-2014-004996
,
- Mattebo, M., Larsson, M., Tydén, T., & Häggström-Nordin, E. (2013). Malingaliro a akatswiri za zotsatira za zolaula ku Swedish achinyamata. Nursing Nursing Health, 31 (3), 196-205. do:10.1111 / phn.12058
,
- Mattebo, M., Larsson, M., Tydén, T., Olsson, T., & Häggström-Nordin, E. (2012). Hercules ndi Barbie? Ndimalingalira za zolaula komanso kufalikira kwake m'manyuzipepala ndi pagulu m'magulu a achinyamata ku Sweden. European Journal of Contraception and Reproduction Health Care, 17 (1), 40-49. do:10.3109/13625187.2011.617853
,
- Mattebo, M., Tydén, T., Häggström-Nordin, E., Nilsson, KW, & Larsson, M. (2013). Kugwiritsa ntchito zithunzi zolaula, zochitika zogonana, moyo wathanzi, ndi thanzi labwino pakati pa anyamata aang'ono ku Sweden. Zolemba za Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 34 (7), 460-468. do:10.1097/DBP.0b013e31829c44a2
,
- Mattebo, M., Tydén, T., Häggström-Nordin, E., Nilsson, KW, & Larsson, M. (2014). Zithunzi zolaula komanso zokumana nazo pakati pa ophunzira pasukulu yasekondale ku Sweden. Zolemba za Developmental & Behaeveal Pediatrics, 35 (3), 179-188. do:10.1097 / DBP.0000000000000034
,
- Mesch, GS (2009). Kugwirizana ndi anthu ndi zolaula pa Intaneti pakati pa achinyamata. Journal of Adolescence, 32 (3), 601-618. do:10.1016 / j.adolescence.2008.06.004
,
- Mesch, GS, & Amayi, TL (2009). Kuwonetsa zithunzi zolaula pa intaneti pakati pa achinyamata: Kodi Intaneti ndi yomwe imakuimba mlandu? Verhaltenstherapie & Verhaltensmedizin, 30 (3), 352-367. do:10.1037 / t01038-000
,
- Mitchell, KJ, Finkelhor, D., & Wolak, J. (2003). Kuwonetsedwa kwaunyamata pazinthu zosafunikira zogonana pa intaneti: Kafukufuku wapadziko lonse wokhudzana ndi zoopsa, zoyambitsa, komanso kupewa. Achinyamata ndi Sosaite, 34(3), 330-358. do:10.1177 / 0044118X02250123
,
- Mitchell, KJ, Wolak, J., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Zochitika mu malipoti aunyamata zakufunsira kwa kugonana, kuvutitsidwa, komanso kuwonetsa zolaula pa intaneti. Journal of Health Adolescent, 40 (2), 116-126. do:10.1016 / j.jadohealth.2006.05.021
,
- Mustanski, BS (2001). Kuwongolera: Kugwiritsira ntchito intaneti pofuna kusonkhanitsa deta yolondola. Journal of Research Research, 38 (4), 292-301. do:10.1080/00224490109552100
,
- Odeyemi, K., Onajole, A., & Ogunowo, B. (2009). Khalidwe logonana ndi zomwe zimapangitsa pakati pa achinyamata achichepere a msika wa Mushin, Lagos, Nigeria. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine ndi Health, 21 (1), 101-110. do:10.1515 / IJAMH.2009.21.1.101
,
- Owens, EW, Behun, RJ, Manning, JC, & Reid, RC (2012). Zotsatira zolaula pa Intaneti pa achinyamata: Kupenda kafukufuku. Kugonana ndi kukakamizidwa, 19 (1-2), 99-122. do:10.1080/10720162.2012.660431
,
- Peter, J. (2013). Kukula kwanyimbo ndi kugonana. Ku D. Lemish (Mkonzi.), The Routledge International Handbook of Children, Atsikana ndi Media, (pp. 217-223). London, UK: Njira.
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2006a). Achinyamata amadziwika ndi zinthu zolaula pa intaneti. Research Research, 33 (2), 178-204. do:10.1177/0093650205285369
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2006b). Achinyamata amawonetsedwa pazinthu zolaula pa intaneti komanso zosangalatsa pa kugonana. Journal of Communication, 56 (4), 639-660. do:10.1111 / j.1460-2466.2006.00313.x
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2007). Kuwonetsedwa kwa achinyamata ku malo azogonana zogonana ndi malingaliro a azimayi ngati zinthu zogonana. Ntchito Zogonana, 56(5), 381-395. do:10.1007 / s11199-006-9176-y
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2008a). Kuwoneka kwa achinyamata ndi zovuta zowonongeka pa Intaneti ndi kugonana kwapakati: Phunziro la magawo atatu. Media Psychology, 11 (2), 207-234. do:10.1080/15213260801994238
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2008b). Kuwonekera kwa achinyamata pazinthu zolaula za pa intaneti, kusatsimikizika pogonana, komanso malingaliro okhudzana ndi kugonana komwe sikunachitike: Kodi pali cholumikizira? Research Research, 35 (5), 579-601. do:10.1177/0093650208321754
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2009a). Achinyamata amadziwika ndi zinthu zolaula pa Intaneti komanso malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana: Kuwonetsa zochitika zapakati pazinthu zogonana.. Journal of Communication, 59(3), 407-433. do:10.1111 / j.1460-2466.2009.01422.x
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2009b). Achinyamata amadziwika ndi zinthu zolaula zolaula komanso kugonana: Kuphunzira kwa nthawi yaitali. Kufufuza kwa Anthu, 35 (2), 171-194. do:10.1111 / j.1468-2958.2009.01343.x
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2010a). Kugwiritsa ntchito kwa achinyamata pazinthu zolaula pa intaneti komanso kusatsimikizika pakugonana: Udindo wokhudzidwa ndi jenda. Zojambulajambula Zotsutsana, 77 (3), 357-375. do:10.1080/03637751.2010.498791
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2010b). Njira zomwe zimayambitsa zotsatira za achinyamata zomwe amagwiritsa ntchito pazinthu zolaula pa Intaneti: Udindo wowona kuti ukuchitika. Research Research, 37 (3), 375-399. do:10.1177/0093650210362464
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2011a). Zotsatira za mawu okhululukira ena pa nkhani ya khalidwe lodziwika bwino pazofukufuku: Udindo wa chikhalidwe chokhudzidwa ndi mawonekedwe a chikhalidwe ndi chitukuko. Maganizo a Pagulu Paokha, 75 (4), 779-787. do:10.1093 / Poq / Nfr041
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2011b). Chikoka cha zinthu zolaula pa Intaneti ndi anzanu pa zikhulupiliro zozizwitsa zokhuza kugonana kwa amai: Zofanana ndi kusiyana pakati pa achinyamata ndi akuluakulu. Cyberpsychology, makhalidwe, ndi Social Networking, 14 (9), 511-517. do:10.1089 / cyber.2010.0189
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2011c). Chikoka cha zolaula pa Intaneti pa chiopsezo cha kugonana: Kuyerekezera achinyamata komanso akuluakulu. Journal of Health Communication, 16(7), 750-765. do:10.1080/10810730.2011.551996
,
- Peter, J., & Valkenburg, PM (2011d). Kugwiritsira ntchito zinthu zolaula pa Intaneti ndi zizindikiro zake: Kuyerekezera kwa achinyamata ndi achikulire nthawi yaitali. Zilembedwa Zotsatira Zogonana, 40 (5), 1015-1025. do:10.1007 / s10508-010-9644-x
,
- Romer, D. (1997). "Kulankhulana" makompyuta: Njira yodalirika ndi yapamwini yopangira zoyankhulana pa nkhani zovuta ndi ana. Journal of Research Research, 34(1), 3-9. do:10.1080/00224499709551859
,
- Rothman, EF, Kaczmarsky, C., Burke, N., Jansen, E., & Baughman, A. (2015). "Popanda zolaula ... sindikanadziwa theka la zinthu zomwe ndikudziwa pano": Kafukufuku woyeserera zolaula pakati pa achinyamata ochita masewera olimbitsa thupi, ochepa ndalama, Achinyamata komanso ku Spain. Journal of Research Research, 52 (7), 736-746. do:10.1080/00224499.2014.960908
,
- Ševčíková, A., & Daneback, K. (2014). Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pa intaneti paunyamata: Zosiyana zaka komanso jenda. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 11 (6), 674-686. do:10.1080/17405629.2014.926808
,
- Ševčíková, A., Šerek, J., Barbovschi, M., & Daneback, K. (2014). Maudindo a mikhalidwe ya munthu aliyense payekha ndi kuwonetsa mwakufuna kudzionetsera mwanzeru kapena mwadala zinthu zolaula za pa intaneti pakati pa achinyamata ku Europe: Njira. Research Research and Social Policy, 11 (2), 104-115. do:10.1007/s13178-013-0141-6
,
- Shek, DTL, & Ma, CMS (2012a). Kudya kwa zolaula pakati pa achinyamata ku Hong Kong: Mbiri ndi ma psychosocial. Nthano Yapadziko Lonse Yokhudza Kulephera ndi Kutukuka kwa Anthu, 11 (2), 143-150. do:10.1515 / ijdhd-2012-0024
,
- Shek, DTL, & Ma, CMS (2012b). Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pakati pa achinyamata ku Hong Kong achinyamata: Kulemba. Sayansi Yadziko Lapansi, 2012, 1-8. do:10.1100/2012/406063
,
- Shek, DTL, & Ma, CMS (2014). Kugwiritsa ntchito mapangidwe osanja kuyang'ana kuwunika kwa zolaula za achinyamata aku China ku Hong Kong. Nthano Yapadziko Lonse Yokhudza Kulephera ndi Kutukuka kwa Anthu, 13 (2), 239-245. do:10.1515 / ijdhd-2014-0309
,
- Skoog, T., Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2009). Udindo wotsatira nyengo pazomwe anyamata achinyamata amachita pa intaneti. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 19 (1), 1-7. do:10.1111 / j.1532-7795.2009.00578.x
,
- Slater, MD (2007). Kupititsa patsogolo miyendo: Zomwe zimakhudzidwa ndi chisankho cha mauthenga ndi zofalitsa zomwe zimakhudza zomwe zimakhudza khalidwe la munthu komanso chikhalidwe cha anthu. Chidziwitso cha Kulankhulana, 17 (3), 281-303. do:10.1111 / j.1468-2885.2007.00296.x
,
- Springate, J., & Omar, HA (2013). Zotsatira za intaneti pa zogonana za achinyamata: Kuwerengera mwachidule. Buku la International Journal of Child and Adolescent Health, 6 (4), 469-471.
- Steele, JR, & Brown, JD (1995). Chikhalidwe chachipinda chapaubwana: Kuwerengera media pazomwe zimachitika tsiku ndi tsiku. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 24 (5), 551-576. do:10.1007 / BF01537056
,
- Steinberg, L., & Monahan, KC (2011). Kudziwitsidwa ndi achinyamata pazinthu zamavidiyo sikukuthandizira kuyamba kugonana. Psychology Developmental, 47 (2), 562-576. do:10.1037 / A0020613
,
- Kuti, S., Iu Kan, S., & Ngai, SS (2015). Kuyanjana pakati pakukhudzana ndi zolaula zapa intaneti komanso zaumwini, banja, ndi zina za mabanja pa zikhulupiliro za ophunzira ku sekondale ku Hong Kong zokhudzana ndi gawo logonana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi komanso. Achinyamata ndi Sosaite, 47 (6), 747-768. do:10.1177 / 0044118X13490764
,
- Kuti, S., Ngai, SS, & Iu Kan, S. (2012). Kuwongolera ndi kuyanjanitsa zotsatira za kupeza zolaula zolaula pa intaneti ku Hong Kong maganizo, chidziwitso, ndi khalidwe la achinyamata, zokhudzana ndi kugonana. Ntchito Yophunzitsa Ana ndi Achinyamata, 34 (11), 2156-2163. do:10.1016 / j.childyouth.2012.07.019
,
- Tourangeau, R., & Smith, TW (1996). Kufunsa mafunso osamalitsa: Zotsatira za kusonkhanitsa deta, mawonekedwe a mafunso, ndi mafunso. Maganizo a Pagulu Paokha, 60(2), 275-304. do:10.1086/297751
,
- Tourangeau, R., & Yan, T. (2007). Mafunso ovuta mu kufufuza. Psychological Bulletin, 133 (5), 859-883. do:10.1037 / 0033-2909.133.5.859
,
- Tra kumi, B., Nilsen, TS, & Stigum, H. (2006). Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula pazazikhalidwe komanso pa intaneti ku Norway. Journal of Research Research, 43 (3), 245-254. do:10.1080/00224490609552323
,
- Tsaliz, L. (2011). Kusewera ndi zolaula: Kuyang'ana kwa ana achi Greek pazithunzi zolaula. kugonana Education, 11 (3), 293-302. do:10.1080/14681811.2011.590087
,
- Tsitsika, A., Critselis, E., Kormas, G., Konstantoulaki, E., Constantopoulos, A., & Kafetzis, D. (2009). Kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula kwa achinyamata pa intaneti: Kuunika mozama momwe zinthu zikugwiritsidwira ntchito komanso zomwe zingakhudze maganizidwe anu. CyberPsychology ndi khalidwe, 12 (5), 545-550. do:10.1089 / cpb.2008.0346
,
- Valkenburg, PM, & Peter, J. (2013). Kusiyanitsa komwe kumakhudzidwa ndi chitsanzo cha zofalitsa. Journal of Communication, 63 (2), 221-243. do:10.1111 / jcom.12024
,
- Van Ouytsel, J., Ponnet, K., & Walrave, M. (2014). Kuyanjana pakati pa achinyamata ogwiritsa ntchito zolaula ndi makanema a nyimbo ndi zikhalidwe zawo zolaula. Cyberpsychology, khalidwe ndi Social Networking, 17 (12), 772-778. do:10.1089 / cyber.2014.0365
,
- Vanden Abeele, M., Campbell, SW, Eggermont, S., & Roe, K. (2014). Kutumizirana zithunzi zolaula, kugwiritsira ntchito zolaula, ndi magulu a anzawo: Kukonda anyamata ndi atsikana, kudzikonda, komanso kukakamizidwa ndi anzawo. Media Psychology, 17 (1), 6-33. do:10.1080/15213269.2013.801725
,
- Vandenbosch, L. (2015). Zomwe zimachitika pakuwonekera kwa achinyamata pazinthu zosiyanasiyana zakugonana pa intaneti: Phunziro lalitali. Makompyuta Makhalidwe Aumunthu, 50, 439-448. do:10.1016 / j.chb.2015.04.032
,
- Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2013a). Kugonana kwa anyamata achichepere: Kuwonetsedwa pa TV komanso kutulutsa kwamkati kwa anyamata momwe akuwonekera. Amuna ndi Masculinities, 16 (3), 283-306. do:10.1177 / 1097184X13477866
,
- Vandenbosch, L., & Eggermont, S. (2013b). Ma webusaiti owonetsa zakugonana ndi kuyanjana ndi kugonana: Ubale wotsatizana ndi ntchito yochepetsera. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23 (4), 621-634. do:10.1111 / jora.12008
,
- Weber, M., Kulakalaka, O., & Daschmann, G. (2012). Anzanga, makolo, ndi zolaula: Kufufuza achinyamata kuti adziŵe zolaula komanso zolimbitsa thupi. Zogonana ndi Chikhalidwe, 16 (4), 408-427. do:10.1007/s12119-012-9132-7
,
- Wiederman, MW (1993). Chiwerengero cha chiwerengero cha anthu komanso chiwerewere cha anthu osagwirizana ndi zochitika zogonana pazofukufuku za dziko lonse. Journal of Research Research, 30 (1), 27-35. do:10.1080/00224499309551675
,
- Wiederman, MW (1999). Kudzipereka mwachangu pa kufufuza za kugonana pogwiritsa ntchito ophunzira ophunzira. Journal of Research Research, 36 (1), 59-66. do:10.1080/00224499909551968
,
- Wolak, J., Mitchell, K., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). Zosafunikira komanso zomwe ndikufuna ndikuwonetsa zolaula za pa intaneti mu mtundu wa achinyamata ogwiritsa ntchito intaneti. Matenda, 119 (2), 247-257. do:10.1542 / peds.2006-1891
,
- Wright, PJ (2013). Amuna amuna ndi zolaula ku US, 1973-2010: Zogwiritsidwa, olosera zamtsogolo, zogwirizana. Journal of Research Research, 50 (1), 60-71. do:10.1080/00224499.2011.628132
,
- Wright, PJ (2014a). Maganizo a anthu aku America pa nkhani yogonana asanakwatirane komanso kugwiritsa ntchito zolaula: Kuwunika kwa dziko lonse. Zilembedwa Zotsatira Zogonana, 44 (1), 89-97. do:10.1007/s10508-014-0353-8
,
- Wright, PJ (2014b). Zithunzi zolaula komanso kucheza pakati pa ana: Kudziwa zamtsogolo komanso zamtsogolo. Zolemba za Ana ndi Media, 8 (3), 305-312. do:10.1080/17482798.2014.923606
,
- Ybarra, ML, & Mitchell, KJ (2005). Kuwonetsedwa zolaula pa intaneti pakati pa ana ndi achinyamata: Kafukufuku wadziko lonse. CyberPsychology ndi khalidwe, 8 (5), 473-486. do:10.1089 / cpb.2005.8.473
,
- Ybarra, ML, Mitchell, KJ, Hamburger, M., Diener-West, M., & Leaf, PJ (2011). Zolemba ndi zochitika zokhudzana ndi chiwerewere pakati pa ana ndi achinyamata: Kodi pali kugwirizana? Makhalidwe Okhwima, 37 (1), 1-18. do:10.1002 / Ab.20367
,
;