MAFUNSO: Kuwonetsa zolaula viKodi zinali zogwirizana kwambiri ndi kuwona akazi ngati zinthu zogonana. Chinthu china chosonyeza kuti zolaula zolaula ndi zosiyana ndi zolaula zakale.
Ntchito Zogonana - Zolemba Zofufuza© Springer Science + Business Media,
Lofalitsidwa pa intaneti: 28 February 2007
Jochen Peter1, 2 ndi Patti M. Valkenburg1
(1) University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
(2) Amsterdam School of Communications Research, University of Amsterdam, Kloveniersburgwal 48, 1012 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Jochen Peter (Wolemba wolemba)
Email: [imelo ndiotetezedwa]
Kudalirika
Phunziroli linapangidwa kuti lifufuze ngati achinyamata ali ndi kachilombo koyambitsa zachiwerewere akugwirizana ndi zikhulupiriro zowonjezereka zomwe amai amagonana. MNthawi zambiri, timaphunzira ngati mgwirizano wa pakati pa amai ndi zinthu zogonana komanso zochitika zogonana ndi zosiyana siyana (mwachitsanzo, zolaula, zofotokozera, kapena zomveka bwino) komanso zosiyana siyana (mwachitsanzo, zojambula ndi zojambula ) zingakhale bwino kutchulidwa ngati zowonjezera kapena zodziwika bwino.
Kuwonjezera pamenepo, tafufuza ngati mgwirizano umenewu unali wosiyana ndi za amai. Malingana ndi deta kuchokera kufukufuku wa pa-line wa 745 Achinyamata achi Dutch omwe ali ndi 13 mpaka 18, tapeza kuti ubale pakati pa zochitika zogonana ndi zochitika zogonana komanso zomwe akazi amakhulupirira monga zochitika zogonana zimatsatira chitsanzo cha chiwerewere: Kuyambira ndi achinyamata omwe ali ndi chidziwitso chokhudzana ndi kugonana, tanthauzo la chiwerengero cha kugonana ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana Kuchokera kumayambiriro momveka bwino kuti muwonetsetse zachiwerewere ndi zithunzi zojambula. Kuwonetsa zinthu zolaula pa mafilimu pa intaneti ndi njira yokhayo yokhudzana ndi zikhulupiliro zomwe amayi ali nazo zinthu zogonana pogonana, pamene kufotokoza kwa mitundu ina ya kugonana kunayendetsedwa. Mgwirizano pakati pa kugonana ndi zochitika zogonana ndi zochitika zogonana ndi ziganizo za amayi monga zinthu zogonana sizinafanane ndi atsikana ndi anyamata.
Kuchokera - Zotsatira za Zithunzi Zolaula pa Intaneti pa Achinyamata: Kupenda kafukufuku (2012)
- Peter ndi Valkenburg (2007) adafalitsa kafukufuku wa achinyamata Achi Dutch (N = 745) omwe adafufuzira mgwirizano pakati pa kugonana ndi zolaula komanso malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Kafukufuku wawo adawona kuti kuwonjezeka kwa chiwonetsero chakugonana kunapangitsa kuti achinyamata, ngakhale atagonana, aziwona akazi ngati zinthu zogonana.
Mfundo-Zithunzi zolaula yakanema magazini Internet Achinyamata
Zaka makumi atatu zapitazi, umboni wochuluka wakuti achinyamata akuwonetsedwa pa zochitika zogonana zikugwirizana ndi zosiyana siyana za amuna ndi akazi komanso zikhulupiliro za kugonana (chifukwa cha ndemanga, onani Escobar-Chaves et al., 2005; Ward, 2003). Akatswiri ofufuza kale ankaphunzira zolaula mumtundu umodzi (mwachitsanzo, masewera, masewero, masewera, kapena mavidiyo) kapena sing'anga imodzi (mwachitsanzo, TV kapena magazini; chifukwa cha ndemanga, onani Escobar-Chaves et al., 2005; Ward, 2003). Kuti atenge bwino zomwe achinyamata akuchita pazofalitsa bwino, ofufuza posachedwa aphatikiza mitundu ingapo (Aubrey, Harrison, Kramer, & Yellin, 2003; Ward, 2002; Ward & Friedman, 2006) ndi mauthenga ambiri (mwachitsanzo, Brown et al., 2006; L'Engle, Brown, & Kenneavy, 2006; Pardun, L'Engle, & Brown, 2005).
Ngakhale kuti phindu limeneli linapindulitsa m'mundawu, mipata iwiri mu kafukufuku omwe alipo alipo. Choyamba, ochita kafukufuku sanaganizirepo za achinyamata kuti adziwe zolaula pa intaneti monga chiyanjano chokwanira cha zikhulupiliro za kugonana. Pa intaneti, kufotokozera momveka bwino zochitika zogonana (mwachitsanzo, pamlomo, m'mimba, kumagonana ndi abambo) ndi zofuna zogonana (mwachitsanzo, kugonana kosagonana, fetisita) sizowoneka mosavuta kwa achinyamata (Cooper, 1998), amagwiritsanso ntchito (Lo & Wei, 2005; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006). Chachiwiri, akadali funso lotseguka ngati komanso momwe achinyamata alili ndi malingaliro okhudzana ndi kugonana akudalira zochitika zogonana ndi zooneka kapena zowoneka. Zing'onozing'ono zimadziwika kuti ngati achinyamata akudya, mwachitsanzo, zolaula zimagwirizana kwambiri ndi zikhulupiliro zawo zogonana kusiyana ndi momwe amachitira zolaula zomwe sizimveka bwino. Mofananamo, sitikudziwa ngati kugonana pakati pa kugonana ndi zikhulupiliro za kugonana kumasiyana pakati pa maonekedwe (mwachitsanzo, zithunzi m'magazini kapena pa intaneti) ndi maonekedwe owonetsera (mwachitsanzo, mafilimu pa TV kapena pa intaneti).
Chifukwa cha ziphuphu ziwirizi, Brown et al. (2006) awonetsa kuti "kufufuza kochepa pa zotsatira za mauthenga pa achinyamata okhudzana ndi kugonana ayenera kuphatikizapo kuwonetsa zolaula za pa Intaneti" (p. 1026). Brown ndi al. afunsanso kuti "zofufuza zowoneka bwino ziyenera kuyang'anitsitsa kuti zitha kudziwa momwe chikhalidwe chilichonse chimagwirira ntchito [zolaula zogonana zogonana]" (p. 1026). Mu phunziro ili, tayesetsa kuthetsa zopempha ziwirizi. Malingana ndi zakudya zolimbana ndi kugonana zomwe zimachitika ndi Brown et al. ndi malingaliro a ena ofufuza (Brown, 2000; Brown ndi al., 2006; Greenfield, 2004; L'Engle et al., 2006; Pardun et al., 2005; Strasburger ndi Donnerstein, 1999), timapereka lingaliro la zochitika zogonana zogonana kuti zithandize kufalitsa kafukufukuyu. Poyankha Brown et al.'S (2006) timapempha, tafufuzira ngati achinyamata akuwonetseratu zolaula, makamaka pa intaneti, akugwirizana ndi zikhulupiliro zawo zokhudzana ndi kugonana kuphatikizapo kuwonetsedwa kwa kugonana ndi zosiyana zogonana m'ma media ena. Komanso, tinaphunzira momwe kufotokoza za kugonana kumakhudzana ndi zikhulupiliro za kugonana malingana ndi kugonana mosagwirizana ndi zomwe zilipo, zowonetserako ndi zowonetserako za nkhani, ndi chiwerewere cha achinyamata.
Kafukufuku wapano adayang'ana kwambiri pazikhulupiriro za achinyamata kuti azimayi ndi zinthu zogonana monga zikhulupiriro zogonana zomwe zitha kukhala zokhudzana ndi chiwonetsero chazakugonana. Kutsutsa kwakazi kwa amayi ndiwongopeka komanso kokomera anthu: Kumapititsanso patsogolo lingaliro la thupi ngati zomangamanga ndikuwonetsera mtundu wapakati wosankhana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Kuwonjezera apo, kafukufuku wam'tsogolo wakhazikitsa mgwirizano pakati pa kufalitsa nkhani zofalitsa nkhani zomwe zimatsutsana ndi chikhulupiliro cha amayi ndi achinyamata kuti amayi ali ndi zinthu zogonana (Ward, 2002; Ward & Friedman, 2006). Kutsata kufufuza kumeneku muzitsogozo kumatithandiza kumvetsetsa mgwirizano pakati pa zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi zokhudzana ndi tsankho.
Zochitika Zogonana Zogonana
Pali kugwirizana kwakukulu kumene achinyamata akukhala mu dziko lamtendere (Qrius, 2005; Roberts, Foehr, & Maulendo, 2005) ndipo atha kuwonetsedwa pazinthu zolaula (Kunkel, Eyal, Finnerty, Biely, & Donnerstein, 2005; Pardun et al., 2005). Chotsatira chake, ofufuza asintha kuchuluka kwa kuchepa kwa achinyamata kwa sing'anga imodzi. Izi zikuwoneka bwino ndi zochitika zogonana zogonana ndi Brown et al, zomwe zimagwirizanitsa kufotokoza kwa achinyamata ndi zolaula zomwe zimapezeka m'mabuku awa (Brown et al., 2006; L'Engle et al., 2006; Pardun et al., 2005). Poyesera koyamba kukulitsa njirayi motsatira mitundu yazachilengedwe yaunyamata, yomwe imawona malingaliro ndi machitidwe a achinyamata chifukwa chothandizana ndi chilengedwe (Lerner & Castellino, 2002), timatsindika mfundo za achinyamata omwe amagonana ndi achinyamata. Lingaliro la zochitika zogonana zokhudzana ndi kugonana zimachokera pa malingaliro atatu. Choyamba, pali zochitika zogonana zisanachitikepo m'manyuzipepala. Chachiwiri, kugonana kumeneku kuli ponseponse ndipo sikumangokhala pa sing'anga imodzi. Chachitatu, zofalitsa zosiyanasiyana zimapereka mwayi wopeza zolaula zowonjezereka. Izi zikugwiritsidwa ntchito makamaka pa intaneti.
Ponena za lingaliro loyambirira, umboni wapezeka kuti kugonana kwawailesi kwawonjezeka muzaka makumi khumi (posachedwapa, onani Ward, 2003). Izi ndi zoona makamaka pa televizioni (mwachitsanzo, Kunkel et al., 2005), komanso limagwiranso ntchito pamagazini ambiri a atsikana (Wojambula, 1998; Scott, 1986). Kafukufuku waposachedwapa wa US anasonyeza kuti chiwerengero cha zithunzi zachiwerewere ku televizioni ya ku America chawonjezeka kawiri pakati pa 1998 ndi 2005 (Kunkel et al., 2005). Ena adanena kuti chiwerengero cha zithunzi zolaula pa intaneti chawonjezeka ndi 1,800% pakati pa 1998 ndi 2004 (Paul, 2005).
Kodi nkhani zogonana ndizofala kwambiri mwakuti chiwerengero chodziwika bwino cha kugonana chikupezeka m'magulu osiyanasiyana a media (kulingalira kwachiwiri)? Maphunziro a mabukuwa amasonyeza kuti, mosasamala kanthu kuti achinyamata akusindikiza kapena kusindikiza ma TV, amakhala ndi mwayi wotsutsana nawo (Escobar-Chaves et al., 2005; Ward, 2003). Mwachitsanzo, pakati pa October 2004 ndi April 2005, 70% ya TV ya 20 ikuwonetsa kuti achinyamata a US akuwonera nthawi zambiri kuphatikizapo kugonana, ndipo 45% imaonetsa khalidwe la kugonana. Mazana makumi asanu ndi awiri mphambu makumi asanu ndi awiri a mafilimu, 87% a masewera ndi masewero a masewero, ndipo 85% mwa masewerawa saphunzira anapeza zogonana (Kunkel et al., 2005). Magazini ambiri amalimbana ndi owerenga omwe ali ndi mafilimu opusa kapena opanda pake, amakambirana momasuka za kugonana, ndipo amalangiza owerenga momwe angakonzere moyo wawo wa kugonana (kuti muwone, onani Ward, 2003). Ndipo kufufuza kosavuta ku Google ndi mawu akuti "kugonana kwaulere" kunayankhidwa, mu November 2006, 2,460,000 kugunda komwe kungatenge wothandizira pogwiritsa ntchito kamphindi kamodzi kumalo owonetsera zakugonana.
Zitsanzo zomwe tazitchulazi za kuwonjezeka ndi kuwonongeka kwa zinthu zolaula pa intaneti zikuthandizira kuganiza kwachitatu kuti achinyamata akutha kupeza zolaula pokhapokha pazinthu zosagonana. Ndi kukula kwa intaneti, zachiwerewere zomwe achinyamata ali nazo zakhala zowonjezereka. Chofunika kwambiri, pa intaneti achinyamata amakhala ndi mwayi wambiri wogwiritsa ntchito zolaula mosadziwika komanso popanda malipiro (Cooper, 1998). Pomalizira, intaneti imathandiza achinyamata kuti apange ziwalo zawo zokhudzana ndi kugonana okhaokha pogawana zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi anzawo (Greenfield, 2004).
Mogwirizana ndi malingaliro a lingaliro la zochitika zogonana zogonana, ndiye, deta yomwe ilipo ikuwonetsa kuti achinyamata angakumane ndi zochitika zogonana zisanayambe zakhalapo, zomwe zili ponseponse ndipo sizingatheke ku sing'anga imodzi. Intaneti, makamaka, yakhala ikugonjetsa zochitika za achinyamata zomwe zimawathandiza kuti azitha kugonana (Cooper, 1998; Lo & Wei, 2005; Paulo, 2005).
Pofuna kuti achinyamata adziwonetsetse zochitika zogonana pogwiritsa ntchito zosiyana siyana zofalitsa zosiyana siyana, tachita nawo phunziroli ndikugwiritsa ntchito kugonana kosadziwika bwino, zachiwerewere, komanso zolaula mumagazini, pa TV, ndi pa intaneti . Televizioni ndi magazini athandizidwa kwambiri pafupipafupi monga momwe zingakhudzire za kukula kwa kugonana kwa achinyamata (Ward, 2003), koma intaneti ikufotokozedwa ngati zotsatira zake (Greenfield, 2004; Lo & Wei, 2005; Thornburgh ndi Lin, 2002). Kutanthauzira kwathu kwa mitundu itatu ya kugonana kwapadera kumatsatira kwambiri malingaliro omwe atsimikiziridwa kuti ndi othandiza pa zochitika zowunika (mwachitsanzo, Kunkel et al., 2005). Kugonana sanali-nkhani zosalongosola zikuwonetsa nkhani za kugonana m'njira zosalongosoka. Zingakhale ndi ulesi, koma sizomwe zikulingalira; oyandikana nawo anthu osaphunzira kapena ziwalo za thupi siziwonekera. Kugonana kungatanthauzidwe kapena kufotokozedwa, koma chithunzichi chimakhala chodziwikiratu. Zochitika zogonana ndi zosaoneka zimatha kupezeka m'mafilimu kapena sopo. Ngati chiwonetsero cha kugonana chimakhudzana ndi uve, sichikhala pakatikati ndipo sichisonyeza kugwirizana kwapafupi. Muzogonana theka-zinthu zosaoneka, uve ndizofunika kwambiri. Chiwonetsero cha kugonana chimakhudza kugwirizana kwambiri ndipo kungasonyeze mitundu yosiyanasiyana yolowera, koma sichiwonetsedwa. Zochitika zogonana zokhudzana ndi kugonana zimapezeka, mwachitsanzo, mu ma TV monga Khoti lachiwerewere or Kugonana. Zogonana zowononga zakugonana zimasonyeza zamaliseche ndi zogonana m'njira zosadziwika. Manja, amaliseche, ndi kutsekula kwa ana akuwonekeratu momveka bwino, kawirikawiri amasonyezedwa pafupi. Zofotokozera za kugonana ndizofala mu "wamkulu," "hardcore," kapena "XXX".
Zogonana Zogonana Ndizogwirizana ndi Zomwe Azimayi Akugonana
Zilibe kanthu kaya kugonana ndizomwe sizowonekera, zofotokozera, kapena zofotokozera, zowonongeka zomwe zakhala zikuwonetsa kuti zokhudzana ndi kugonana zimakhudzitsa amayi nthawi zambiri kusiyana ndi amuna (ngati ndemanga, onani Ward, 2003). Malingana ndi Fredrickson ndi Roberts (1997), Kutsutsa kwa akazi kumatha kufotokozedwa ngati kuchepetsedwa kwa azimayi kukhumba zawo zogonana potengera mawonekedwe akunja ndikuwunika matupi awo (ziwalo). Zimakhudzanso nkhawa yayikulu pazochita zogonana za akazi monga chofunikira kwambiri pakukopa kwawo ndikuwonetsera azimayi ngati masewera achiwerewere akudikirira kukondweretsa zilakolako za abambo. Pazinthu zosafotokozeredwa zachiwerewere zomwe zimawonetsedwa m'mapulogalamu apawailesi yakanema komanso makanema anyimbo, kuyang'ana matupi azimayi kumakhala kofala kuposa kuyang'ana matupi a amuna (mwachitsanzo, Grauerholz & King, 1997; Seidman, 1992). Mwachitsanzo, kuwunika kwamapulogalamu oyambira nthawi yayikulu kudawonetsa kuti, mu 84% yazomwe zidawunikiridwa, chochitika chimodzi chazomwe zidachitika. Makumi atatu mphambu awiri mwa magawo onse azakugwiriridwa anali mawu ogonana omwe amayang'ana matupi a amayi kapena ziwalo za thupi lawo (Grauerholz & King, 1997). Kuwunika kwa mavidiyo a nyimbo a 182 kunasonyeza kuti 37% ya akazi, mosiyana ndi amuna a 4%, ankavala zovala zowonetsa (Seidman, 1992).
M'magazini azamuna omwe ali ndi chiwerewere, akatswiri apezanso chizolowezi chofotokozera azimayi makamaka ndi mawonekedwe awo ndi matupi awo, komanso kuwonetsa azimayi ngati ogonana (Krassas, Blauwkamp, & Wesselink, 2001). Mu mafilimu ofotokoza zakugonana, zitsanzo za ubongo waakazi kuposa amuna amphongo mu chiŵerengero cha 4: 1 (Greenberg et al., 1993). Pomaliza, zolaula mumavidiyo, ma DVD, magazini, ndi intaneti makamaka zimawona azimayi ngati masewera achiwerewere komanso omvera, omwe matupi awo ndi ziwalo zawo zoberekera ndizofunikira kwambiri (mwachitsanzo, Brosius, Weaver, & Staab, 1993; Cowan, Lee, Levy, ndi Snyder, 1988; Ertel, 1990). Cowan et al. (1988), mwachitsanzo, adawonetsa kuti 69% yokhudzana ndi kugonana pofuna kudziwonetsera zochitika zowonekera kwazimayi zinali zojambulidwa ndi akazi, ndipo 31% anali amuna ojambulidwa.
Ngakhale kuti zofufuza zokhudzana ndi zochitikazi zakhala zogwirizana, zochepa zofufuza zakhudzana ndi kugwirizana komwe kungakhalepo pakati pa zofalitsa zofalitsa mafilimu zomwe zimatsutsa akazi ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Ward (2002) anapereka umboni wogwirizana wakuti achinyamata omwe nthawi zambiri ankaonera TV anali oposa achinyamata omwe amaonera TV nthawi zambiri kuti azikhulupirira kuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana. Poyesera, Ward ndi Friedman (2006) adatha kusonyeza kuti kuwonetsedwa kwa kanema kanema kankhani koyambitsa akazi kunapanga mfundo za amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Ward anapeza zotsatira zofanana, komabe kwa amai omwe ali nawo mu gulu loyesera, mosiyana ndi maphunziro azimayi mu gulu lolamulira, koma osati kwa amuna omwe ali mu gulu loyesera. Kafukufuku akusoweka pa mgwirizano pakati pa mauthenga ena, monga kusindikiza nkhani kapena intaneti, ndi mawonedwe a amayi ngati zinthu zogonana. Komabe, zofukufuku zomwe zilipo zokhudzana ndi kugonana kwa amai pa nkhani zogonana komanso zolaula zimasonyeza kuti achinyamata omwe ali ndi kachilombo koyambitsa zachiwerewere akhoza kuwonjezera malingaliro awo a amayi ngati zinthu zogonana.
Chikhalidwe cha Ubale pakati pa Kugonana ndi Zogonana ndi Malingaliro Akazi monga Zogonana
Ngakhale kuti kugwirizana kwabwino pakati pa kugonana ndi zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi zikhulupiliro zomwe amayi ali nazo zinthu zogonana zikuwoneka zomveka, chikhalidwe cha ubalewu chikhalebe chosavuta. Zowonjezereka, sizikudziwika bwino kuti malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana zimasiyana bwanji ndi malingaliro okhudzana ndi kugonana kwa zomwe zili ndi mawonekedwe ake (mwachitsanzo, zojambula, monga zithunzi m'magazini, kapena zojambula, monga ma TV kapena mafilimu pa Intaneti). Kodi kufotokozera zachiwerewere zosiyana siyana ndi zosiyana siyana zimaphatikizapo mgwirizano (wokhutira) ndi zikhulupiliro kuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana? Kapena kodi chiyanjano chachiwirichi chimakhala chokwanira kwambiri, pomwe kufotokozera zolaula ndi zolaula zimagwirizana kwambiri ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana kusiyana ndi kuwonetsedwa kwa zolaula ndi zolaula?
Sitikudziwanso pang'ono za kusiyana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi pazokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi zosiyana ndi zomwe amakhulupirira kuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana. Kafukufuku wochuluka wanena kuti chiyanjano pakati pa kugonana ndi zikhulupiliro za kugonana zingakhale zogwirizana ndi chiwerewere cha achinyamata (pofufuza, onani Ward, 2003). Komabe, zimakhala zovuta kunena ngati mgwirizano womwe ulipo pakati pa zochitika zogonana ndi zochitika zogonana ndi zikhulupiliro zomwe amayi ali nazo zogonana zingakhale zolimba kwa anyamata kapena atsikana.
Zowonjezereka ndi azungu
Monga tafotokozera pamwambapa, kuwonjezereka kwakukulu komanso kuwonjezereka kwa mafilimu okhudzana ndi kugonana, kuphatikizapo kupezeka kwake mosavuta, kunama pamtima pa lingaliro la achinyamata omwe amagonana ndi achinyamata. Kulingalira kotereku kumapangitsanso njira ziwiri zomwe achinyamata amachitira ndi zochitika zogonana zogonana zogwirizana ndi zikhulupiliro zomwe akazi amagonana. Timatcha chitsanzo choyamba zowonjezera. Powonjezera, timatanthawuza kuti achinyamata amatha kugonana ndi zosiyana zosiyana ndi zosiyana ndi zomwe amakhulupirira kuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana. Kufotokozera momveka bwino zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi maonekedwe ake kapena mafilimu owonetserako mafilimu ndi ofunika kwambiri kusiyana ndi kuti achinyamata amatha kugonana mobwerezabwereza. Chotsatira chake, mosasamala kanthu za kufotokozera ndi momwe zilili, zowonjezera zokhudzana ndi kugonana zidzakhudzana ndi zikhulupiriro zowonjezereka zomwe amai ali nazo zogonana. Phunziroli, tikuganizira kuti ngati zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi zosiyana ndi zosiyana ndi zosiyana ndi zofanana ndi zomwe amai amaganiza monga kugonana. Mphamvu yomwe chiwonetsero chilichonse chimagwirizanitsidwa ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana chingathe kufotokozera momwe chiwerengerochi chikugwiritsidwira ntchito, koma, makamaka mu phunziro lino, osati chifukwa cha chidwi chachikulu.
Njira yowonjezereka mu mgwirizano pakati pa kugonana ndi zochitika zogonana ndi chikhulupiliro cha chiwerewere poyamba zimagwirizana ndi malingaliro omwe amatsindika pawailesi mwambiri monga wothandizira kugonana (mwachitsanzo, L'Engle et al., 2006; Strasburger ndi Donnerstein, 1999). Pogwiritsa ntchito njira, njira yowonjezeramo imaganiziridwa, mwachitsanzo, mu zakudya zolimbana ndi kugonana, ndi kuphatikizapo kugonana mosiyana muyezo umodzi (mwachitsanzo, Brown et al., 2006). Pogwira ntchito, kuchuluka kwa ubale pakati pa kuwonekera ndi zikhulupiliro zakugonana kumadziwitsa, mwachitsanzo, kumafuna chidwi chambiri pazankhani monga ziwopsezo zamaganizidwe okhudzana ndi thanzi launyamata (mwachitsanzo, Rich & Bar-On, 2001).
Maphunziro otsogolera okhudza zochitika zogonana pogwiritsa ntchito zolaula amapereka chithandizo choyambirira pamwambowu (Brown et al., 2006; L'Engle et al., 2006). Komabe, maphunzirowa sanaphatikizepo kuzinthu zolaula, ndipo ochita kafukufuku sanafufuze zokhudzana ndi zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana monga Brown et al. (2006) adanena okha. Kuwonjezera apo, kufotokoza kwa Brown ndi al. Kumafuna kuti achinyamata adziwone zosiyana siyana za kugonana ndi zosiyana siyana kuti azitha kulinganitsidwa mosiyana ndi zomwe amakhulupirira kuti akazi ndizogonana. Mu zochitika zambiri zofufuza, njira yowonjezereka ingasonyezedwe ndi maubwenzi ambiri pakati pa akazi monga zinthu zogonana komanso kufotokozera zolaula zomwe siziwonetseratu, zowonongeka, komanso zogonana m'mawonekedwe onse owonetsera komanso omvera.
Timatchula chitsanzo chachiwiri cha momwe achinyamata akuonera zochitika zolimbitsa thupi zokhudzana ndi kugonana zokhudzana ndi zikhulupiriro zomwe akazi amagonana nazo. zochitika zamakono chitsanzo. Zotsatirazi zimaganiziridwa bwino pamalingaliro omwe amawona zolaula pa intaneti ngati chida champhamvu kwambiri chazogonana kuposa mitundu ina yazogonana pazachikhalidwe (Donnerstein & Smith, 2001; Paulo, 2005; Thornburgh ndi Lin, 2002). Pogwiritsa ntchito njira zowonjezereka, chikhalidwe chachikhalidwe chogwirizana pakati pa kuvomereza ndi chikhulupiliro cha kugonana chikugwirizana ndi zopempha monga zofunsira maphunziro apadera a kugonana kwa intaneti m'mabanja ndi kusukulu (Greenfield, 2004) kapena kulangiza makolo momwe angatetezere ana awo pa intaneti (Freeman-Longo, 2000). Mosiyana ndi momwe chiwerengerochi chimayambira, ndiye kuti chitsanzo cha achinyamata sichikuphatikizapo kuti achinyamata akugonana pa zochitika zosiyanasiyana zowonongeka ndi zojambula zimaphatikizapo kugwirizana ndi zikhulupiliro kuti amai ndi zinthu zogonana. M'malo mwake, nkhani zogonana zimakhudzana ndi maganizo a amayi monga zinthu zogonana, malingana ndi momwe amachitira zogonana ndi maonekedwe ake kapena mafilimu.
Pofotokoza za kugonana, chikhalidwe chotsatira chikutanthauza kuti zokhazokha zokhudzana ndi kugonana zimakhala zogwirizana ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Kusanthula kwatsatanetsatane ka zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana kwatanthawuza kugonana kwa akazi pogwiritsa ntchito, mwachitsanzo, kuwombera kobwerezabwereza kowonekera kwathunthu (Cowan et al., 1988), kuthamanga kwa amuna pamthupi, nkhope, kapena pakamwa mwa mkazi (Brosius et al., 1993), ndi chithunzi cha akazi omwe sagwire ntchito (Ertel, 1990). Pafupipafupi komanso mwamphamvu, kutsutsa kwa amayi pazinthu zolaula kungakhale kosiyana kwambiri ndi kutsutsa kwa akazi pazinthu zosafotokoza kapena zogonana. Kuphatikiza apo, chizolowezi chosangalatsa, komanso mwina kukhumudwitsa, zolaula zosafotokozedwa (Zillmann & Bryant, 1986) zingayambitse machitidwe achikhalidwe, omwe amangofotokoza zochitika zogonana zokhudzana ndi kugonana zokhudzana ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana.
Pogwiritsa ntchito maonekedwe kapena maonekedwe ofotokoza za kugonana, chitsanzo cha chiwerewere chimatanthawuza kuti pamapeto pake chiwonetsero chogonana chimagwirizana ndi malingaliro akuti amayi ndi zinthu zogonana. Kusanthula kwatsatanetsatane kwasonyeza kuti, pamaganizo oonera zolaula, amuna nthawi zina amalankhula ndi akazi mwachinyengo, mwachipongwe (mwachitsanzo, Cowan et al., 1988, Ertel, 1990). Pakukonzekera kwakanthawi, malingaliro azakugonana omwe amayang'ana matupi a akazi ndi ziwalo zawo amapezeka nthawi zambiri (Grauerholz & King, 1997). Chotsatira chake, njira yowonjezera yowonjezereka m'maganizo, ndipo ndizotheka kufotokozera zokhuza kugonana kapena mauthenga achinsinsi (mwachitsanzo, kuyimba mluzu), zingayambitse mgwirizano wamphamvu pakati pa zolaula zogonana ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana kusiyana pakati pa zokhazokha zogonana ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana.
Chiyeso chokwanira cha chikhalidwe cha chikhalidwe chachidziwitso pakati pa kugonana ndi zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi zikhulupiliro kuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana zimafuna kuti kuwonetsedwa kwa mitundu itatu yonse ya kugonana kwapadera kumafufuzidwa pa maonekedwe ndi mafilimu. Pankhani ya chikhalidwe cha gulu lachikhalidwe, kukambirana kafukufuku wambirimbiri kumayambitsa chiyanjano pakati pa kugonana kosagwirizana ndi zochitika za kugonana komanso malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Pambuyo pake, padzakhala mayanjano ofunikira kuti azitha kuwonetsa zochitika zogonana zokhudzana ndi kugonana, koma osagwiritsanso ntchito kugonana kosagwirizana. Komabe, atakhala kuti akuwonetseratu zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana, ndiye kuti kuwonetseredwa kotereku kungakhale ndi chiyanjano cholimba ndi zikhulupiliro kuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana; Chiyanjano chofunika kwambiri pakati pa kugonana ndi zokhudzana ndi chiwerewere ndi zikhulupilirozi zikanatha.
Kwa mtundu uliwonse wa kugonana, kufotokozera koyambirira kwa zochitika zowonongeka kungawonongeke kamodzi kogwiritsa ntchito mafilimu amatha kuganiziridwa. Mwachitsanzo, pamene kuwonetsa zachiwerewere zomwe sizowoneka bwino (mwachitsanzo, zithunzi m'magazini) poyamba zingakhale zogwirizana kwambiri ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana, mgwirizano umenewu ukhoza kutha pamene akuwonetsedwa ndi zolaula zosagwirizana ndi zolaula (mwachitsanzo, , pa televizioni) amalingaliridwa. Mwachizoloŵezi chabwino cha chikhalidwe chotsatira, potsirizira pake kokha kukuwonetseratu zolaula zolaula zokhudzana ndi kugonana (mwachitsanzo, m'mavidiyo kapena m'mafilimu pa intaneti) zingakhale zogwirizana ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana.
Ngakhale kuti zochitika zonse ziwirizikulu ndi zochitika zodziwika bwino zikhoza kufotokozedwa momveka bwino, umboni wamakono wamakono sungalole kufotokozera kuti ndi ziwiri ziti zomwe zingatheke kuchitika pokhudzana ndi mgwirizano wa pakati pa achinyamata ndi zochitika zogonana zogonana ndi maganizo awo a akazi monga zinthu zogonana. Kotero, ife tinapanga funso lotsatira la kafukufuku.
RQ 1: Kodi chiyanjano pakati pa anyamata ndi atsikana omwe akugonana ndi anthu omwe ali ndi chilakolako chogonana komanso maganizo awo a amai monga zinthu zogonana ndibwino kuti awonetsedwe kuti ndi okhudzana ndi chiwerewere?
Kugonana kwa chiwerewere
Kuchokera pa ndondomeko ya kusiyana kwakukulu pakati pa amuna ndi akazi pa nkhani yogonana, Aubrey et al. (2003) asonyeza kufunika koyenera kuganizira kuti abambo ndi amai akhoza kuchita mosiyana ndi zochitika zogonana. Olembawo adamaliza kuchokera ku kafukufuku omwe alipo omwe, poyerekeza ndi amayi, amuna amayembekezera kugonana kosiyana ndi anzawo; Kawirikawiri amagonana kuti azisangalala, ndipo ndizing'ono zochezera, zifukwa; ndi kugwiritsira ntchito zowonjezereka zogonana. Komanso, chikhalidwe chachiwiri chogonana chilipo, malinga ndi njira ziti zofanana zogonana zomwe zimaonedwa kuti ndi zoyenera kwa amuna kuposa akazi. Chikhulupiriro chakuti akazi ndi zinthu za kugonana zikuwoneka kuti zikugwirizana ndi ziwerengero zingapo za kugonana kumene amuna ndi akazi amasiyana. Kuchokera ku lingaliro lodziwika bwino, kusiyana kwakukulu pakati pa kugonana pakati pa kugonana kungatanthauzire kusiyana pakati pa kusiyana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi pakati pa ziganizo za amayi monga zinthu zachiwerewere ndi kuwonetsa kugonana.
Komabe, kafukufuku wogwira mtima pa kusiyana kwa kusiyana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi pachitetezo cha kugonana pazinthu za amayi monga zinthu zogonana ndizosavomerezeka. Mu kafukufuku potsatira zotsatira za mafilimu osagwirizana ndi kugonana, Ward (2002) adapeza kuti azimayi aku koleji omwe adawonera kanema wakuwayilesi yakanema adagwirizana kwambiri kuposa azimayi aku koleji omwe adawonera zosagonana kuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana. Kusiyana kumeneku, mosiyana, sikunachitike kwa ophunzira achimuna aku koleji omwe anali atakumana ndi mitundu yofananira. Potengera kafukufukuyu ndi ophunzira aku sekondale, palibe kusiyana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi. Osatengera kuti ndi amuna kapena akazi, ophunzira omwe adawonera zonyansa zokhudzana ndi kugonana adathandizira lingaliro la azimayi ngati zinthu zakugonana mwamphamvu kuposa momwe ophunzira amathandizira (Ward & Friedman, 2006).
Kusagwirizana kwa kafukufuku wokhudzana ndi kusiyana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi poyankha zokhudzana ndi zachiwerewere kumakhudzanso kafukufuku wamalingaliro omwe amafanana ndi chikhulupiliro chakuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana. Mwachitsanzo, ubale wapakati pazowonetsa zakugonana pawailesi yakanema, monga sopo komanso makanema anyimbo, wapezeka kuti ndiwokhudzana kwambiri ndi malingaliro azakugonana pakati pa atsikana achichepere kuposa achichepere achimuna (mwachitsanzo, Strouse & Buerkel-Rothfuss, 1995; Strouse, Goodwin, & Roscoe, 1994). Mosiyana ndi izi, kuwonetsa zotsatsa zamagazini momwe azimayi amawonetsedwa ngati zinthu zogonana zidapangitsa kuti anthu avomereze mwamphamvu nthano zachiwerewere komanso malingaliro ogonana pakati pa ophunzira aku koleji achimuna kuposa azimayi anzawo (Lanis & Covell, 1995; MacKay ndi Covell, 1997). Pomalizira, kawiri kawiri kafukufuku akusonyeza kuti zikhoza kudalira mtundu ndi mtundu wa chikhulupiliro chogonana kaya abambo kapena amai ali okhudzidwa kwambiri ndi kugonana (Aubrey et al., 2003; Ward & Rivadeneyra, 1999). Chifukwa cha mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya kafukufuku, tikhoza kungoganiza kuti chiwerewere chikhoza kuchepetsa chiyanjano pakati pawo ndi zochitika zogonana ndi zochitika zogonana. Komabe, sitinathe kufotokozera momwe chiwonetserochi chimawonekera ndipo motero tinapanga funso lofufuza:
RQ 2: Kodi achinyamata ali ndi chiwerengero chotani pakati pa chiwerewere ndi zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana?
Zina Zofotokozera
Kafukufuku wakale pa kusiyana kwa zikhulupiliro za amayi monga zinthu zogonana zimasonyeza kuti malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu za kugonana ali ndi chitukuko, chitukuko, ndi chikhalidwe. Phunziroli, lomwe likuwunikira kuwonetsedwa kwa ma TV, izi zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati njira zina zomwe zimapangitsa achinyamata kukhala osiyana pakati pa amai ndi zinthu zogonana ndipo ayenera kulamuliridwa. Mwachitsanzo, potsata zosiyana siyana, Ward (2002) apeza kuti achinyamata ambiri omwe ali ndi chilakolako chogonana amakhala ndi malingaliro amphamvu a amayi monga zinthu zogonana kusiyana ndi achinyamata ocheperapo zachiwerewere (Ward, 2002). Ponena za kusiyana pakati pa anthu, kafukufuku wasonyeza kuti amuna ndi anyamata ndi oposa amayi ndi atsikana kuti azivomereza zikhulupiliro zotere (Ward, 2002; Ward & Friedman, 2006). Ponena za zikhalidwe zosiyanasiyana, Ward ananenanso kuti anthu amtunduwu amatsutsana ndi zikhalidwe za amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Ku Netherlands, achinyamata a Turkey ndi a Moroccani ochepa amasiyana kwambiri ndi chikhalidwe chawo cha chiwerewere kuchokera ku chiwerengero cha achinyamata achi Dutch, komabe amatsutsa mfundo zachikhalidwe zogonana (Rutgers Nisso Group, 2005). Zotsatira zake, achinyamata omwe si a Chiholanzi angakhale ochuluka kwambiri kuposa achinyamata a ku Dutch omwe amakhulupirira kuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana.
Mfundo yakuti chitukuko, chikhalidwe, ndi chikhalidwe zimakhudzana ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana zomwe zimakhudza zotsatira za kafukufuku pazokhudzana ndi kugonana. Kafukufuku wokhudza kugonana akusonyeza kuti zingakhale zopindulitsa pokhapokha kuyesa zotsatirazi, chitukuko, chikhalidwe, ndi chikhalidwe chotsatira pofuna kuyesa mwatsatanetsatane mgwirizano womwe ungakhalepo pakati pa zochitika zogonana zogonana komanso zikhulupiliro za amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Potsata zosiyana zowonjezera, achinyamata omwe ali ndi chikhalidwe chogonana komanso chikhalidwe chawo chikhoza kuchepetsa malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Kuwonjezera pa msinkhu, chikhalidwe cha pubertal chikuwoneka ngati chidziwitso cha kukula kwa achinyamata. Kupititsa patsogolo kotsimikizika kwa zikhulupiliro kuti akazi ndi zinthu za kugonana zomwe Ward (2002) omwe amapezeka pakati pa ophunzira aku koleji, poyerekeza ndi ophunzira aku sekondale (Ward & Friedman, 2006), Amapereka umboni woyambirira wokhudzana ndi ubale womwe ungakhale wolakwika pakati paubereki ndi chikhulupiriro ichi. Kupanga chibwenzi kumakhala gawo lofunikira pakukula kwa achinyamata (Miller, Christopherson, & King, 1993) ndipo angapatse achinyamata kuti azitha kusiyanitsa kwambiri zomwe zimatanthauza kukhala mwamuna kapena mkazi. Zotsatira zake, achinyamata omwe ali pachibwenzi sangakhale ochepa kuposa achinyamata omwe sali pa banja kuti awone akazi ngati zinthu zogonana. Pomalizira, kugonana kwa achinyamata ndiyenera kuganiziridwa ngati kusintha kosasokoneza. Kukula kwa kugonana kumakhala kofunika kwambiri paunyamata, ndipo achinyamata omwe ali ndi chiwerewere ndi anyamata amasiyana ndi achinyamata omwe amagonana amuna kapena akazi okhaokha m'maganizo awo a amayi monga zinthu zogonana.
Potengera mitundu ina yachuma, chikhalidwe cha achinyamata pazachuma komanso maphunziro awo atha kukhudza zikhulupiriro zawo za amayi ngati zinthu zogonana. Maphunziro apamwamba komanso kuchepa kwachuma komanso chuma kumalumikizidwa ndi kuthandizira kumasulidwa kwa amayi (Glick, Lameiras, & Castro, 2002; Townsend, 1993). Izi zitha kugwiranso ntchito pamalingaliro ofanana azimayi ngati zinthu zogonana. Pomaliza, monga chikhalidwe china, kupembedza kwa achinyamata kumatha kuchepetsa malingaliro azimayi ngati zinthu zogonana. Chipembedzo chimachepetsa malingaliro azakugonana (Le Gall, Mullet, & Shafighi, 2002).
Kafukufuku wamakono akugogomezera kuti achinyamata omwe ali ndi chilakolako chogonana, makamaka pa intaneti, akhoza kugwirizana ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Mu phunziro lino, kufotokoza kumatanthawuza kugwiritsira ntchito moyenera zokhutira. Komabe, Greenfield (2004) ndi Mitchell, Finkelhor, ndi Wolak (2003) agogomezera kuti, pa intaneti, achinyamata 'angayambe kugwiritsidwa ntchito pazinthu zakugonana, mwachitsanzo kudzera m'mawindo apamwamba kapena maimelo a spam. Izi sizinafunsidwe kuti ziwonetsedwe za kugonana zingakhudze malingaliro a anyamata ngati chinthu chogonana. Pofuna kuti mayesero athu akhale ovuta kwambiri, timayang'anitsitsa kuti tipeze zolaula pazinthu zolaula.
Mwachidule, tinaphatikizapo mu chitsanzo chathu, monga zochitika zachitukuko, zochitika za kugonana, chikhalidwe, zaka, ubale, ndi kugonana; monga kusintha kwa chikhalidwe cha anthu, umoyo, chikhalidwe, maphunziro, chikhalidwe ndi zachuma; monga zikhalidwe zoletsa chikhalidwe, mtundu ndi chipembedzo; ndipo ngati zina zowonjezereka zowoneka mosavuta zowonongeka pazinthu zolaula pa-intaneti.
Mlandu wa Dutch
Phunziroli likuchitika ku Netherlands, dziko lomwe nthawi zambiri limatchulidwa kuti likuyendera njira zokhudzana ndi kugonana (mwachitsanzo, Unicef, 2001) ndi mfundo zake zowolowa manja pazinthu zomwe zimakhudzana ndi zolaula (Drenth & Slob, 1997). Kuwonjezera apo, Netherlands ndi amodzi mwa mayiko khumi padziko lonse lapansi mogwirizana ndi ndondomeko ya United Nations yofotokoza za chitukuko cha amai komanso njira yowonjezera mphamvu za amayi (United Nations Development Programme, 2001). Pomaliza, makanema azachinyamata aku Dutch samawoneka kuti akusiyana kwambiri ndi makanema azachinyamata akumayiko ena olemera akumadzulo. Makanema apawailesi yakanema makamaka akuwoneka ngati ofanana ndi mapulogalamu aku kanema waku US, ndipo makanema ndi makanema ambiri amatumizidwa kuchokera ku US (Valkenburg & Janssen, 1999). Ndipo, ngakhale kuchuluka kwa achinyamata omwe ali ndi intaneti kunyumba ndikochulukirapo ku Netherlands kuposa mayiko ena ambiri, kugwiritsa ntchito intaneti kwa achinyamata aku Dutch sikuwoneka ngati kosiyana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito intaneti kwa achinyamata m'maiko ena (mwachitsanzo, Valkenburg & Peter , muzolengeza).
Makhalidwe amenewa a Netherlands amachititsa dzikoli kukhala loyenerera kwambiri pochita phunziroli. Tinathe kufufuza, pakati pa achinyamata ophunzitsidwa za kugonana, kuwonetseratu kupitiliza kwa kugonana kuchokera kuzinthu zofalitsa zosiyanasiyana, kuphatikizapo intaneti, popanda kuika chiwopsezo chotulutsa zotsatira zosagwirizana ndi zofufuza kuchokera ku mayiko ena olemera a kumadzulo. Kuphatikizanso apo, udindo wapadera wa amayi a Chidatchi ungapereke mphamvu zotsutsana ndi mafilimu owonetsera azimayi monga zinthu zogonana. Ngati tikhoza kupeza chiyanjano pakati pa achinyamata ndi zochitika zogonana ndi zochitika zogonana komanso maganizo awo a amayi monga zinthu zogonana, sitidzakhala ndi umboni weniweni wa zochitika zomwe zingatengeke posachedwa m'mayiko ena, koma tidzakhalanso ndi Kuwonetseranso ntchito yofunika kwambiri pazofalitsa pofotokozera zochitika za amai.
njira
Ophunzira ndi ndondomeko
Mu Marichi ndi Epulo 2005, kafukufuku wapa intaneti adachitika pakati pa achinyamata 745 achi Dutch (anyamata 48%, 52% atsikana) azaka zapakati pa 13 ndi 18 (M = 15.5, SD = 1.69). Makumi asanu ndi anayi mphambu awiri mwa anthu zana omwe anafunsidwa anali achi Dutch, 8% otsalawo anali amitundu ina. Pofufuza zovuta, kafukufuku wa pa intaneti kapena, makamaka, kafukufuku wapakompyuta awonetsa kuti ndiwoposa njira zina zofunsira mafunso (mwachitsanzo, Mustanski, 2001). Otsutsawo analembedwanso kuchokera ku gulu lomwe likupezeka pa intaneti lomwe linayang'aniridwa ndi Intomart GfK, bungwe lodziwika bwino la omvera ndi ofalitsa ku Netherlands. Sampling ndi ntchito zogwirira ntchito zinachitidwa ndi Intomart GfK. Sukuluyi idapanga anthu omwe anafunsidwa m'madera onse a Netherlands, mwina mwa kuyankhulana kwa foni, mwachindunji kupyolera mwa malo ochezera a pa Intaneti, ndipo anapempha kwa aliyense wovomerezeka chidziwitso chodziwitsidwa, ndipo kwa ana, chivomerezo cha makolo asanakwanitse achinyamata. Mayankhidwe ake anali 60%. Kusanthula kunasonyeza kuti chikhalidwe, chikhalidwe, ndi maphunziro a anthu omwe anafunsidwa sanapatuke pa ziwerengero za boma. Asanayambe kutsatiridwa kwa kafukufukuyu, adalandira kalata kuchokera ku yunivesite yathu.
Achinyamata adadziwitsidwa kuti phunziroli likanakhudzana ndi kugonana ndi intaneti ndipo, ngati angafune, akhoza kusiya nawo mbali iliyonse. Tinachita masitepe angapo kuti tipeze chinsinsi, kusadziwika, ndi chinsinsi cha njira yothetsera (Mustanski, 2001). Pazenera loyambira la mafunso a pa intaneti, tidatsimikiza kuti mayankho adzafufuzidwa ndi ife okha, ofufuzawo. Kuphatikiza apo, omwe anafunsidwa adafunsidwa kuti awonetsetse kuti akulemba fomu yamseri. Pomaliza, tidatsimikizira omwe adayankha kuti mayankho awo sangadziwike. Ndiye kuti, tinafotokoza momveka bwino kuti palibe mwayi woti ofufuzawo azindikire omwe adalemba mafunso ndikuti, Intomart GfK sakanatha kuwona zomwe omwe adayankha adayankha. Intomart GfK sanalumikizitse mayankho a omwe anafunsidwa patsamba lathu la mafunso ndi mayina awo ndi zidziwitso zawo, ndipo amangotipatsa zosintha zakumbuyo kuphatikiza mayankho amafunso athu. Izi zakhala zikuyenda bwino m'maphunziro ena osiyanasiyana pazinthu zovuta komanso kuwonetsetsa kuti anthu omwe anafunsidwa sakudziwika. Kumaliza kufunsa mafunso kunatenga pafupifupi 15 min.
Pofufuza zomwe zafotokozedwa m'nkhaniyi, tinali ndi chidziwitso chonse kuchokera kwa 674 omwe adafunsidwa ndi 745 omwe adayambitsa mafunsowa. Kuwonjezeranso kwina kunasonyeza kuti, malinga ndi msinkhu, chikhalidwe, mtundu, ndi maphunziro apamwamba, a 674 omwe ayankha omwe tinali nawo deta lathunthu sanasinthe mwachindunji kwa iwo omwe tinayankha omwe sitinawadziwe chidziwitso.
Njira
Kuwonetsera kwa zolaula zomwe sizimveka bwino m'magazini
Tinagwiritsira ntchito mfundo imeneyi ndi achinyamata omwe amapezeka m'magazini atatu achi Dutch omwe amadziphatikizapo kugonana (mwachitsanzo, Actueel). Magazini awa ali ndi malo osangalatsa. Amanena za maseŵera, umbanda, ndi kuwonongeka kwa nyengo, kawirikawiri amakhala ndi njira yokondera. Achinyamata anafunsidwa kuti ndi magazini angati omwe amawawerenga nthawi zambiri; Magulu a mayankho ochokera ku 1 (palibe) kwa 7 (nkhani zonse). Chinthuchi chinali chosiyana-siyana (kufotokoza kusiyana kwa 80%), ndipo chinachititsa Alpha Cronbach wa .87 (M = 1.27, SD = .82).
Kuwonetsera ku zachiwerewere zomwe sizowonekera pa TV
Tinagwiritsira ntchito njirayi pojambula funso limene linafunsa achinyamata kuti adziwe momwe angakhalire ndi chidwi pa mapulogalamu osiyanasiyana a pa televizioni. Zomwe zimaphatikizapo zotsatira kuchokera ku mafotokozedwe okhutira (mwachitsanzo, Kunkel et al., 2005; Pardun et al., 2005; kuti muwone, onani Ward, 2003), tinaphatikizapo mitundu ya TV yomwe ili ndi zinthu zosagwirizana ndi kugonana: zogwiritsira ntchito sopo (mwachitsanzo, Nthawi Zabwino, Nthawi Zoipa), mawonedwe a nyimbo (mwachitsanzo, pa MTV), comedy zovuta (mwachitsanzo, Friends, Kugonana mu Mzinda), mafilimu achikondi (mwachitsanzo, Harry Met Sally), mawonetsero achikondi (mwachitsanzo, Chomwe mukufunika ndi chikondi), ndi mndandanda wa ntchito (mwachitsanzo, 24, JAG). Magulu a mayankho akuchokera ku 1 (osasangalatsidwa nkomwe) kwa 4 (chidwi kwambiri). Zomwe mawonekedwe a msinkhuwo anali osasunthika (anafotokoza kusiyana kwa 42%), alpha ya Cronbach inali .72 (M = 2.82, SD = .69).
Kuwonetsera kwa zolaula-zofotokozera zomwe zili m'magazini
Mchitidwe uwu unali opangidwa ndi zinthu ziwiri-kutulukira kwa achinyamata Playboy ndi Penthouse. Achinyamata anafunsidwa kuti asonyeze kuchuluka kwa nkhani Playboy ndi Penthouse iwo amawerengera, ndipo magulu omwe amachitapo kuchokera ku 1 (palibe) kwa 7 (nkhani zonse). Zinthu ziwirizi zinagwirizana pa .80, alpha ya Cronbach inali .89 (M = 1.16, SD = .71).
Kuwonetsera kwa zolaula-zomveka zomwe zili pa TV
Mchitidwe umenewu unagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi achinyamata omwe nthawi zambiri amawonekera pa mapulogalamu a pa TV omwe amaonetsa zachiwerewere.Kugonana, Khoti lachiwerewere, Chikondi cha Latin). Ofunsidwawo adafunsidwa kuti ndi kangati, chaka chatha, iwo adayang'anitsitsa mapulogalamu atatu a pa TV. Magulu a mayankho akuchokera ku 1 (konse) kwa 5 (kangapo pa sabata). Zinthu zitatuzi zikadasinthidwa, zinapanga unidimensional scale (anafotokoza kusiyana kwa 78%). Cronbach's alpha inali .85 (M = 1.28, SD = .59).
Kuti tione ngati kuwonetsedwa kwa mafilimu owonetserana ndi mafilimu akuwonetseranso zochitika zogonana pazinthu zogonana, timasintha zinthu zomwe zidagwiritsidwa ntchito pa miyeso iwiri ndikuziika pazowonongeka ndi varimax. Zotsatira ziwirizi zikugwirizana ndondomeko yoyendetsera miyeso iwiri, yomwe ikusonyeza kuti zomangika ziwirizi ndizovomerezeka.
Kuwonetsera kwa zinthu zolaula mumagazini
Achinyamata anafunsidwa kuti afotokoze momwe nthawi zambiri analiri ndi magazini osakondana chaka chatha. Magulu a mayankho akuchokera ku 1 (konse) kwa 5 (kangapo pa sabata) (M = 1.35, SD = .76). Mu Dutch, mawuwo magazini osasangalatsa nthawi zambiri amagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati chiwonetsero cha magazini a chi Dutch ogonana, omwe amachititsa kugonana, chilankhulo, ndi kugonana kwa abambo m'njira zosadziwika, zosadziwika. Kuwonetsa ngati zochitika pamagazini owonetsa zakugonana (mwachitsanzo, magazini okonda kugonana) zinali zosiyana ndi zomwe tinkatchula kuti zokhudzana ndi magulu okhudza zachiwerewere (mwachitsanzo, Playboy ndi Penthouse), tinagwirizanitsa zinthu zitatuzi. Kuwonetsedwa kwa magazini okonda kugonana kunali kogwirizana kwambiri ndi kukhudzana ndi Playboy, r = .24, p <.001, ndi Penthouse, r = .15, p <.001. Malumikizidwe otsika amathandizira kusiyana komwe kumayembekezereka pakati pazowonetsa zolaula (monga zikuwonetsedwa m'mawonekedwe achi Dutch a Playboy ndi Penthouse) komanso zofalitsa zowonjezereka zomwe zili m'magazini osokonekera achi Dutch.
Kuwonetseratu zida zolaula pavidiyo / DVD
Ofunsidwawa anafunsidwa kuti ndi kangati, chaka chatha, iwo anali ndi mafilimu oonera zolaula. Magulu omvera adayambanso kuchokera ku 1 (konse) kwa 5 (kangapo pa sabata) (M = 1.43, SD = .90).
Kuwonetsera zithunzi zolaula pa intaneti
Achinyamata amafunsidwa kangati, m'miyezi 6 yapitayi, adayang'ana, pazithunzi, pa intaneti momwe anthu amagonana. Magawo oyankha anali 1 (konse), 2 (kamodzi kamodzi pa mwezi), 3 (Nthawi 1-3 pamwezi), 4 (kamodzi pa sabata), 5 (kangapo pa sabata), ndi 6 (tsiku lililonse), (M = 1.87, SD = 1.29).
Kuwonetsera mafilimu owonetsa zakugonana pa intaneti
Tidafunsa achinyamata kuti, m'miyezi 6 yapitayi, anali, awonera, makanema apa intaneti kapena makanema apa kanema omwe anthu amagonana. Magawo oyankhira anali ofanana ndikuwonetsa zithunzi zolaula pa intaneti (M = 1.82, SD = 1.28).
Kuyezetsa koyambirira kunawonetsa kuti achinyamata sakusowa kufotokozera kwakukulu pazinthu ziwiri zomwe tidaziyerekeza kuti tipeze zithunzi ndi mafilimu owonetsa zakugonana. Ofunsidwawo adadziwa kuti zinthu ziwirizi zinali zokhudzana ndi kugonana komanso zofuna zawo.
Azimayi monga zinthu zogonana
Ambiri adatsatira opaleshoni ya Ward (2002), koma anaisintha pang'ono kuti agwiritsidwe ntchito pakati pa achinyamata Achi Dutch. Kuwonjezera pamenepo, tinasintha zinthu ziwiri za Ward pachiyambi (mwachitsanzo, kulira malipoti pa akazi omwe ali okongola, akazi okongola amapatsa amuna ulemu) ndi zinthu ziwiri zomwe zimatchulidwa kwambiri kugonana (mwachitsanzo, "Osadziŵa, atsikana nthawi zonse amafuna kuti azigonana" ndi "Atsikana opatsirana pogonana ndi okondedwa kwambiri"). Magulu a mayankho akuchokera ku 1 (sagwirizana kwathunthu) kwa 5 (kuvomereza kwathunthu). Potsatira njira yowonongeka ya varimax, zinthu zitatu zazing'ono za Ward zomwe zinkakhudzana ndi chisamaliro cha nkhope ndi thupi komanso kufunika kwa maonekedwe a akazi kuti akope amuna atanyamula chinthu chimodzi. Chotsatira chake, pamapeto pake tinayesa lingaliro la amayi monga zinthu za kugonana ndi zinthu zitatu zomwe zatsala kuchoka pa msinkhu wa Ward (mwachitsanzo, "Mkazi wokongola ayenera kuyembekezera kugonana;" "Zimandivutitsa ngati mwamuna ali ndi chidwi ndi akazi pokhapokha ngati ndi wokongola; "" Palibe cholakwika ndi amuna omwe akukhudzidwa kwambiri ndi thupi la mkazi ") kuphatikizapo zinthu ziwiri zomwe tinaziwonjezera. Zinthu zisanuzi zinapanga uni-dimensional scale (anafotokoza kusiyana kwa 50%), ndi alpha ya Cronbach ya .75 (M = 2.81, SD = .74).
Zaka ndi chiwerewere
Kuyesa kwa zaka ndi chikhalidwe kunali kosavuta. Anyamata amalembedwa ndi 0, atsikana omwe ali ndi 1.
Chikhalidwe
Tinachita masewera olimbitsa thupi / osiyana ndi anthu omwe amakhulupirira kuti 0 imatanthauza chiyani Osati Dutch, ndipo 1 imatanthauza Dutch.
Zochitika za kugonana
Tinagwiritsira ntchito zochitika zogonana ndi zinthu zitatu: kugonana kwachinsinsi, kugonana m'kamwa, komanso kugonana ndi mwamuna kapena mkazi. Kuyezetsa koyambirira kunasonyeza kuti achinyamata analibe vuto kumvetsa. Otsutsa anafunsidwa ngati atachita chimodzi kapena zambiri mwa makhalidwe atatu. Kuti tipewe mavuto ndi kusintha kwa chipika cha zotsatira zake, chidziwitso ndi khalidwe linalake la chiwerewere linalembedwa ngati 2; kusowa chidziwitso ndi khalidwe linalake linalembedwa ngati 1. Zinthu zitatu zodzazidwa pa chinthu chimodzi (zinafotokozera kusiyana kwa 81%). Tinalemba mwachidule zinthu izi ndikuzigawanitsa ndi chiwerengero cha zinthu zomwe zimapanga msinkhu. Zotsatira za alpha zinali .88 (M = 1.30, SD = .41).
Education
Maphunziro adayesedwa pazithunzi za 5 zomwe zinayimira zosiyana za maphunziro omwe achinyamata Achi Dutch angakhale (M = 2.75, SD = 1.22). Magawo oyankha anali 1 (Maphunziro apamwamba, maphunziro apansi a maphunziro), 2 (Maphunziro apamwamba omwe ali pamunsi), 3 (Maphunziro apamwamba a ntchito), 4 (Maphunziro apamwamba a pulayimale, maphunziro a ku yunivesite) ndi 5 (Maphunziro apamwamba a maphunziro, yunivesite). Tiyenera kukumbukira kuti, ku Netherlands, achinyamata a msinkhu womwewo akhoza kukhala ndi maphunziro osiyana. Izi zikuwonetsanso mu mgwirizano wochepa wa r = .23 pakati pa maphunziro ndi zaka.
Chikhalidwe cha chikhalidwe ndi zachuma
Zolinga za zachuma ndi zachuma zinagwiritsidwa ntchito monga kuphatikizapo miyeso iwiri: ntchito ndi maphunziro a banja loyambitsa banja (mwachitsanzo, munthu amene amapeza ndalama zambiri m'banja). Mwachitsanzo, ngati wopeza banja ali ndi maphunziro osaphunzira komanso osaphunzira ntchito, zotsatira zake zimakhala zochepa. Mosiyana ndi zimenezo, munthu yemwe ali ndi digiri ya yunivesite komanso mtsogoleri wapamwamba adzapatsidwa udindo wapamwamba wa zachuma ndi zachuma. Miyeso iwiri idaphatikizidwa kuti pakhale chiwerengero cha 5-point. Anchos a zotsatira zake anali 1 (chikhalidwe chochepa chachuma) ndi 5 (chikhalidwe chachuma ndi zachuma) (M = 2.97, SD = 1.28).
Zipembedzo
Kaya anyamata ndi achipembedzo anayesedwa ndi chinthu "Ndili wachipembedzo." Magulu a mayankho akuchokera ku 1 (sizikugwira ntchito konse) kwa 5 (amagwira ntchito kwathunthu) (M = 2.23, SD = 1.33).
Chiwerengero cha abambo
Chikhalidwe cha abambo chinayamba kugwira ntchito ndi Pulogalamu ya Pubertal Status yomwe inapangidwa ndi Petersen, Crockett, Richards, ndi Boxer (1988). Mlingo uli ndi zinthu zisanu kwa anyamata-tsitsi, kusintha kwa mawu, kusintha kwa khungu, kukula kwa khungu, kukula kwa tsitsi, ndi zisanu kwa atsikana-tsitsi labwino, kusintha kwa mawere, kusintha kwa khungu, kukula kwa msinkhu, ndi kusamba. Tachotsa chinthu chopangira khungu chifukwa Petersen et al. adawona kuti chinali chodalirika kwambiri ndi chosakwanira cha zinthu zosiyanasiyana. Achinyamata angasonyeze pazithunzi za 4 zomwe zinachokera ku 1 (sinayambe panobe) kwa 4 (yatha) kaya kusintha kulikonse kwa thupi kunayamba kale kapena kunatha kale. Pazifukwa zomveka, sitinapereke atsikana ndi gulu loyankhira yatha chifukwa cha msambo. Zomwe mkati mwake zinalipo zinali .89 kwa anyamata (M = 2.91, SD = .83) ndi .82 ya atsikana (M = 3.19, SD = .56).
Chikhalidwe cha ubale
Ubale wawo waubwana unayesedwa ndi funso lakuti "Kodi panopa muli pachibwenzi?" Achichepere omwe anali osakwatiwa analembedwa 0 (67.9%); Achinyamata omwe anali ndi chibwenzi anali olembedwa 1 (32.1%).
Kugonana
Achinyamata anafunsidwa ngati ali amuna kapena akazi okhaokha, amuna kapena akazi okhaokha, kapena amuna kapena akazi okhaokha. Phunziroli, tinaphatikizapo kugonana kuti tipeze kusiyana kwa achinyamata omwe sagonana amuna kapena akazi okhaokha komanso osagonana amuna kapena akazi okhaokha m'maganizo awo a amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Choncho timasintha mtundu wa anthu osakwatirana nawo (osakwatirana ndi 0, 6.8%) komanso achinyamata omwe amamwalira amodzi (omwe ali ndi 1, 93.2%).
Kusadziwika kuti akuwonetseratu zolaula pa intaneti
Tidafunsa achinyamata kuti, pafupipafupi, mwangozi adakumana ndi zolaula pa intaneti m'miyezi 6 yapitayi. Zogonana zomwe tidatchulazi zinali (a) zithunzi zokhala ndi maliseche owonekera; (b) makanema okhala ndi maliseche owonekera bwino; (c) zithunzi momwe anthu akugonana; (d) makanema momwe anthu amagonana; (e) malo olumikizana ndi zolaula. M'malo olumikizana ndi zolaula, anthu amatha kulumikizana ndi anthu ena pazolinga zogonana, mwachitsanzo potumiza mbiri zowonera komanso / kapena zolemba zolaula, zomwe zitha kuwonekeranso ngati kutsatsa kapena maulalo. Magawo oyankha anali 1 (konse), 2 (kamodzi kamodzi pa mwezi), 3 (Nthawi 1-3 pamwezi), 4 (kamodzi pa sabata), 5 (kangapo pa sabata), ndi 6 (tsiku lililonse). Zinthu zomwe zanyamula pa chinthu chimodzi (zinafotokozera kusiyana kwa 67%), ndipo zinachititsa alpha ya Cronbach ya .87 (M = 2.10, SD = 1.11).
Kusanthula deta
Tidasanthula mitundu yambiri yazoyeserera poyesa mafunso athu ofufuza. Kusanthula kwakanthawi kambiri kumaganizira kuti zosinthazo zimakhala ndi magawidwe abwinobwino, koma njira zogonana nthawi zambiri zimasokonekera. Tisanawunikenso zambiri, tinayesa mayeso a Shapiro-Wilk mwachizolowezi kuti tiwone ngati mitundu yamtunduwu imagawidwa nthawi zambiri. Zotsatira za mayeso, tidayenera kusinthiratu njira zachipembedzo, kutha msinkhu, zochitika zogonana, ndi njira zonse zowonekera. Chifukwa zina mwazinthu zathu zitha kulumikizidwa mwamphamvu, tidasanthula ngati pali umboni wazambiri pakati pazosintha. Izi sizinali choncho; Zonse zakusokonekera kwazinthu zidali pansi pamtengo wofunikira wa 4.0. Kuyesa kwa Cook-Weisberg kunatsimikizira kuti mtundu wathu umakwaniritsa lingaliro lodzikweza. Pofufuza momwe mayankhulidwe amagwirira ntchito pakati pa jenda la achinyamata komanso kuwonetsa kwawo zinthu zosiyanasiyana zogonana, tidakhazikika pazowoneka mozungulira njira zawo kuti tipewe mavuto amitundu yambiri (Aiken & West, 1991).
Results
Table 1 limapereka mgwirizano wa zero pakati pa zigawo zazikulu za phunziroli, mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya kufotokozera kugonana ndi chikhulupiliro chakuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana. Kupatula kuwonetsa zachiwerewere zomwe sizimveka bwino m'magazini ndi pa televizioni, mawonekedwe ena onse omwe amawonekera amakhala okhudzana kwambiri ndi zikhulupiliro zomwe akazi amagonana. Zochitika ziwiri mu mayanjano pakati pa mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya kuwoneka zikuwoneka zofunikira. Choyamba, kuwonetsa zachiwerewere zomwe sizowonekera pa televizioni sikunali kosayenera kapena kosagwirizana ndi kuwonetsedwa kwa ziganizo zogonana kapena zolaula. Chachiwiri, kufotokozera zachiwerewere zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pazinthu zowonongeka komanso zowonetseratu zolaula m'magazini, m'mafilimu / DVD, ndi pa intaneti zinali zogwirizana kwambiri. Zonse, Table 1akuwonetseratu chithunzi chowonetserako pamaganizo okhudzana ndi kugonana. Kawirikawiri, achinyamata amawoneka ngati amakonda kugonana kapena zolaula; Kuwonetsa zachiwerewere zofotokozera, makamaka pa televizioni, zimagwirizana kwambiri ndi zokhudzana ndi kugonana kusiyana ndi kuwonetsera zolaula zogonana.
Gulu 1
Zolinga zotsatizana pakati pa zowonongeka ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana.
|
|
Akazi monga kugonana
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(1)
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(2)
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(3)
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(4)
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(5)
|
(6)
|
(7)
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
(1) Magazini osadziwika (ln)
|
-XXUMUM
|
|||||||
|
(2) TV yosaoneka bwino (ln)
|
-XXUMUMa
|
.09a
|
||||||
|
(3) Magazini osamveka (ln)
|
.13c
|
.36c
|
.03
|
|||||
|
(4) Televizi yowonekera (ln)
|
.27c
|
.10b
|
-XXUMUM
|
.22c
|
||||
|
(5) Magazini omveka (ln)
|
.23c
|
.23c
|
-XXUMUMa
|
.28c
|
.49c
|
|||
|
(6) zithunzi zowoneka bwino (ln)
|
.30c
|
.06
|
-XXUMUMb
|
.22c
|
.45c
|
.46c
|
||
|
(7) kanema / DVD (lol)
|
.30c
|
.04
|
-XXUMUMb
|
.23c
|
.62c
|
.53c
|
.55c
|
|
|
(8) Mafilimu ofotokoza mafilimu (ln)
|
.31c
|
.05
|
-XXUMUM
|
.22c
|
.49c
|
.44c
|
.72c
|
.61c
|
Kukula kwa anyamata ndi ana omwe adalosera kuti adzalumikizana ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya kugonana ndi zikhulupiriro zawo kuti amai ndi zinthu zogonana. Kuwonetsedwa kwa magazini osagwirizana ndi kugonana kunali kosiyana kwa atsikana ndi anyamata (M Atsikana = 1.24, SD Atsikana = .78, M Boys = 1.29, SD Boys = .86), t (742) = .86, ns. Koma atsikana ankawona zolaula zosagwirizana pa TV nthawi zambiri kuposa anyamata (M Atsikana = 3.12, SD Atsikana = .58, M Boys = 2.50, SD Boys = .65), t (724) = -13.69, p <.001. Poyerekeza ndi atsikana, anyamata amadya kwambiri zolaula zomwe zili m'magazini (M Atsikana = 1.05, SD Atsikana = .37), M Boys = 1.29, SD Boys = .94, t (742) = 4.68, p <.001, zolaula zolaula pa TV (M Atsikana = 1.13, SD Atsikana = .38, M Boys = 1.43, SD Boys = .72), t (732) = 7.21, p <.001, zolaula m'magazini (M Atsikana = 1.17, SD Atsikana = .54, M Boys = 1.53, SD Boys = .91), t (732) = 6.64, p <.001, zolaula pa kanema / DVD (M Atsikana = 1.13, SD Atsikana = .52, M Boys = 1.74, SD Boys = 1.09), t (732) = 9.80, p <.001, zithunzi zolaula pa intaneti (M Atsikana = 1.40, SD Atsikana = .86, M Boys = 2.38, SD Boys = 1.47), t (727) = 11.12, p <.001, ndi makanema olaula pa intaneti (M Atsikana = 1.37, SD Atsikana = .83, M Boys = 2.30, SD Boys = 1.49), t (727) = 10.49, p <.001. Mosiyana ndi atsikana, anyamata amakhala ndi malingaliro oti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana (M Atsikana = 2.58, SD Atsikana = .67, M Boys = 3.01, SD Boys = .73), t (727) = 12.11, p <.001.
Chikhalidwe cha ubale
Mafunso athu ofufukira anafufuzira mbali ziwiri za mgwirizano pakati pa kugonana ndi zochitika zosiyanasiyana zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi zojambula zojambula ndi zowonetserako: choyamba, kaya bungwe ndiloloŵerengera kapena lachidziwitso, ndipo chachiwiri, mgwirizano umadalira chikhalidwe cha achinyamata .
Zowonjezereka ndi azungu
Kuti tiyese chikhalidwe chokwanira kapena chikhalidwe cha gululo, tinayambitsa zolemba zambiri zamagulu (onani Table 2). Tinayambitsa ndondomeko yowonongeka mwachidziwitso ndi chitsanzo choyambirira chomwe chinaphatikizapo kufotokozera kwina kwa zikhulupiliro zomwe akazi amagonana. Kenaka, tinalowerera mofulumira muzitsulo zosiyana siyana, kuyambira poyang'ana kugonana kosagwirizana ndi kugonana (Zitsanzo 1 ndi 2), kupitirizabe kuwonetsera zochitika zogonana zokhudzana ndi kugonana (Zithunzi 3 ndi 4) ndikuthera ndi kugonana ndi zolaula (Zithunzi 5 ndi 6). Pa gawo lililonse la magawo atatuwa okhudzana ndi kugonana, tinayamba kufotokozera zachiwerewere pamasewero owonetsera (mwachitsanzo, zithunzi m'magazini kapena pa intaneti) musanayambe kugonana ndi mafilimu (mwachitsanzo, televizioni, kanema, kapena mafilimu pa Intaneti). Mu Zithunzi 5 ndi 6, tinasiyanitsa kufotokozera zakugonana pa intaneti kuti tipeze zojambula zogonana mumasewero (Model 5) komanso pa kanema / DVD (Model 6) kuti tione ngati kuwonetsera pazinthu zimenezi kumapangitsa kusiyana .
Gulu 2
Kuwonetsedwa ku zochitika zogonana zogonana ndi ziganizo za amayi monga zinthu zogonana.
|
(N = 674)
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zitsanzo
|
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Base
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
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5
|
6
|
|
|
Zosintha zosiyana
|
|||||||
|
Atsikana
|
-XXUMUMc
|
-XXUMUMc
|
-XXUMUMc
|
-XXUMUMc
|
-XXUMUMc
|
-XXUMUMc
|
-XXUMUMc
|
|
Age
|
-XXUMUMa
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
|
Education
|
.02
|
.02
|
.02
|
.01
|
.00
|
.01
|
.00
|
|
Chikhalidwe cha chikhalidwe ndi zachuma
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
|
Mtundu wachi Dutch
|
.00
|
.00
|
.00
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
|
Zipembedzo (ln)
|
.03
|
.03
|
.02
|
.02
|
.02
|
.02
|
.02
|
|
Mu ubale
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
.00
|
.01
|
.02
|
.02
|
.01
|
|
Chiwerengero cha abambo (ln)
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
|
Zochitika zogonana (ln)
|
.07
|
.07
|
.07
|
.06
|
.02
|
.02
|
.01
|
|
Kugonana kwa amuna okhaokha
|
.01
|
.01
|
.01
|
.01
|
.04
|
.03
|
.03
|
|
Intaneti yosaoneka bwino (ln)
|
.11b
|
.11b
|
.11b
|
.10a
|
.06
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
|
Kusiyana kwa kugonana kumasiyana
|
|||||||
|
Magazini osadziwika (ln)
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
-XXUMUM
|
|
|
.R2
|
.001
|
||||||
|
TV yosaoneka bwino (ln)
|
.04
|
.04
|
.02
|
.03
|
.03
|
||
|
.R2
|
.002
|
||||||
|
Magazini omveka bwino (ln)
|
.08a
|
.06
|
.05
|
.04
|
|||
|
.R2
|
.006a
|
||||||
|
TV yowonetsera (ln)
|
.18c
|
.13b
|
.08
|
||||
|
.R2
|
.024c
|
||||||
|
Magazini omveka (ln)
|
.06
|
.04
|
|||||
|
Zithunzi zojambulidwa pa intaneti (ln)
|
.14b
|
.06
|
|||||
|
.R2
|
.014b
|
||||||
|
Vuto lowonetsa / DVD (ln)
|
.10
|
||||||
|
Mafilimu ofotokoza mafilimu (ln)
|
.11a
|
||||||
|
.R2
|
.011b
|
||||||
|
Chiwerengero cha R2
|
.124c
|
.125c
|
.127c
|
.133c
|
.157c
|
.171c
|
.182c
|
|
Onse Adj. R2
|
.110
|
.110
|
.110
|
.114
|
.138
|
.149
|
.158
|
Chitsanzo choyambira mu gawo lachiwiri la Table 2 amasonyeza kuti anyamata ndi achinyamata amakhulupirira kwambiri kuposa amayi ndi achikulire omwe amai amavala zinthu zogonana. Komanso, kawirikawiri kupezeka pazinthu zolaula pa intaneti kunkagwirizana ndi malingaliro amphamvu omwe amayi ali ndi zinthu zogonana. Palibe njira zina zothandizira achinyamata zomwe zimakhudza maganizo a achinyamata kuti amai ndi zinthu zogonana. Mu Model 1, kuwonjezeranso kwa achinyamata kuti asagwiritse ntchito zachiwerewere zomwe sizinayambe kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'magazini kapena kunagwirizanitsa kwambiri ndi maganizo a amayi monga zinthu zogonana kapena kusintha kwakukulu kwa kufotokozera, .R 2 = .001, ns Zotsatira zofananamo monga mu Model 1 zinayambira mu Model 2 pamene tinkaphatikizapo kugonana kosagwirizana ndi nkhani pa TV, .R 2 = .002, ns.
Komabe, kufotokozera zachiwerewere zomwe zili m'magazini, zomwe zinalowa mu Model 3, zinali zogwirizana kwambiri ndi zikhulupiliro kuti amayi ali ndi zinthu zogonana komanso mopitirira malire anafotokoza kusiyana kwa chitsanzo, .R 2 = .006, .F(1, 659) = 4.38, p <.05. Kusintha kwakukuluko pakusintha kwamtundu wachitsanzo kunachitika pomwe tidawonjezera kuwonetsa zolaula pa TV, monga chiwonetsero 4, .R 2 = .024, .F(1, 658) = 18.83, p <.001. Kuwonetsa zachiwerewere pawailesi yakanema zinali ndi ubale wabwino kwambiri ndi malingaliro azimayi ngati zinthu zogonana, β = .18, p <.001. Mogwirizana ndi machitidwe okhudzana ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu pakati pa kuwonetsedwa pazinthu zogonana zogonana komanso malingaliro azimayi ngati zinthu zogonana, mgwirizano womwe udalipo kale pakati pazowonetsa zolaula zomwe zili m'magazini zidatsika pansipa, β = .06, ns, pamene kuwonetsa zachiwerewere zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pa TV zikuphatikizidwa mu chitsanzo.
Chitsanzo cha 5 chikusonyeza kuti achinyamata amatha kuona zithunzi zolaula pa intaneti zikugwirizana kwambiri ndi chikhulupiliro chakuti amai ndi zinthu zogonana, β = .14, p <.01. Izi sizinali choncho pakuwonekera m'magazini olaula, β = .06, ns. Kuphatikizidwa kwa mitundu iwiriyi mu chitsanzoyi kunakula kwambiri kunafotokoza kusiyana, .R 2 = .014, .F(2, 656) = 5.38, p <.01. Chiyanjano pakati pazowonetsa zachiwerewere pawailesi yakanema komanso zomwe zimadalira zidayamba kuchepa, komabe zinali zofunikira. Pomaliza, mu Model 6, tidaphatikizanso kuwonetsa kwa achinyamata pazinthu zolaula pavidiyo / DVD komanso makanema olaula pa intaneti. Kuwonetsedwa kwa makanema olaula pa intaneti kunali kogwirizana kwambiri ndi lingaliro loti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana, β = .11, p <.05, pomwe kuwonetsa zolaula pavidiyo / DVD sikunali, β = .10, ns Izi zinafotokozera kusiyana kwa chitsanzocho chinawonjezeka kwambiri pamene zosiyana ziwirizo zinaphatikizidwa mu chitsanzo, .R 2 = .011, .F(2, 654) = 4.54, p <.01. Chiyanjano chofunikira kwambiri pakati pakuwonetsedwa pazithunzi zolaula pa intaneti ndikusintha komwe kudalira kunasowa, β = .06, ns Chiyanjano pakati pa kugonana ndi zolaula-zolaula pa TV ndi kusintha kwadalira sizinali zofunikira, β = .08, ns
Kuti tifotokoze mwachidule, tapeza, mogwirizana ndi chiyembekezo chathu, kuti zokhudzana ndi kugonana zokhudzana ndi kugonana zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi zikhulupiriro zowonjezereka zomwe amai ali nazo zogonana. Zowonjezereka komanso poyankha funso lathu loyamba la kafukufuku, zotsatira zake zasonyeza kuti chikhalidwe cha bungweli chikhoza kufotokozedwa bwino monga chikhalidwe chokha.
Kugonana kwa amuna ndi akazi
Ngati chiyanjano pakati pa kugonana ndi zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi lingaliro la amayi monga zinthu zogonana zimayesedwa ndi chikhalidwe cha anyamata, tikhoza kuyembekezera zotsatira zogwirizana pakati pa kugonana ndi chimodzi kapena zingapo zomwe zimayendera. Izi sizinali choncho. Sitinapeze zotsatira zofunikira pakati pa magawo asanu ndi atatu okhudzana ndi kugonana komanso kugwirizana ndi zikhulupiliro kuti amai ndi zinthu zogonana. Chimodzimodzinso, kuwonjezera mawu asanu ndi atatu omwe akutsutsana ndi chitsanzocho sikunapangitse kwambiri kufotokozera kusiyana kwa chitsanzo, .R 2 = .011, .F(8, 646) = 1.12, ns. Poyankha funso lachiwiri la kafukufuku, ndiye kuti kafukufuku wathu wasonyeza kuti chikhalidwe cha achinyamata chimalumikizana ndi zochitika zogonana ndi zochitika zogonana komanso maganizo awo a amayi monga zinthu zogonana zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito kwa anyamata ndi atsikana.
Kukambirana
Mofanana ndi kafukufuku wakale (Ward, 2002; Ward & Friedman, 2006), kafukufuku wathu wasonyeza kuti achinyamata omwe ali ndi kachilombo koyendetsa nkhani zolimbitsa thupi amagwirizana ndi mfundo zowonjezereka za amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Monga adafunsidwa ndi Brown et al. (2006), tinaphunzira kuti momwe ziwonetsero zogonana zimagwiritsidwira ntchito mosiyanasiyana komanso zimagwirizana ndi zikhulupiliro zomwe akazi amagonana. Tapeza kuti chiyanjano pakati pa kugonana ndi zochitika zogonana komanso zochitika za amai monga zinthu zogonana zingathe kufotokozedwa ngati chikhalidwe choyambirira: Kuyambira ndi achinyamata omwe ali ndi chidziwitso chokhudzana ndi kugonana, tanthauzo la chiwerengero cha chiyanjano cha amayi ndi kugonana Zinthu zimasunthira kuchoka kumalo owonetsera momveka bwino kupita ku zolaula zowonongeka. Kuwonetsera kwa zochitika zogonana ndi maonekedwe (mwachitsanzo, zithunzi m'magazini ndi pa intaneti) nthawi zambiri zimasiyanitsa chiyanjano chofunikira ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana pamene zochitika zogonana muzojambula zowonongeka zimaganiziridwa (mwachitsanzo, TV ndi mafilimu pa intaneti). EKuphatikiza pa mafilimu owonetsa zakugonana pa intaneti ndi njira yokhayo yokhudzana ndi chikhulupiliro kuti akazi ndizochita zachiwerewere pamtundu wotsiriza, zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pazinthu zina zogonana. Ndondomeko imeneyi imagwiritsidwa ntchito kwa atsikana ndi anyamatas.
Achinyamata amadziwika ndi nkhani zolaula komanso zikhulupiliro zawo zogonana
Mogwirizana ndi kafukufuku wapitalo, maphunziro ochuluka kwambiri okhudzana ndi achinyamata okhudzana ndi kugonana (Brown et al., 2006; L'Engle et al., 2006; Pardun et al., 2005), kufufuza uku kunapangitsa kuti achinyamata adziwonetsetse zomwe zilipo kuti athe kumvetsetsa zikhulupiliro zawo zogonana. Mosiyana ndi kafukufuku wammbuyomu, sitinapezepo chiwerengero chokwanira, koma chikhalidwe cha chikhalidwe cha pakati pa anyamata omwe amaganiza kuti achinyamata ndi zinthu zogonana ndi momwe amachitira zachiwerewere zosiyana siyana mu maonekedwe ndi mafilimu. Zotsatira zathu zenizeni sizikutanthawuza kuti njira yowonjezerayi ndi yosavomerezeka. Pardun et al. (2005) anawongolera mosiyana chikoka cha achinyamata kuti aziwonetsedwa ku televizioni, mafilimu, nyimbo, ndi magazini pa zolinga zogonana, ndipo adapeza njira yowonjezera. Izi poyamba zimasonyeza kuti zochitika za chiwerengero chokwanira kapena chikhalidwe chachidziwitso chikhoza kudalira mtundu wa kusinthika kwa kugonana. Maganizo angagwirizane ndi kugonana ndi zochitika zogonana kusiyana ndi zolinga za kugonana kapena khalidwe la kugonana.
Kuwonjezera apo, kuyambika kwa chizoloŵezi chokwanira kapena chikhalidwe chaumulungu chingagwirizane ndi mtundu uliwonse wa kufotokozera zochitika zogonana zokhudzana ndi kugonana. Choncho, maphunziro a mtsogolo ayenera kuphatikizanso kuwonetsedwa kwa kugonana mu masewero a kanema ndi mavidiyo a nyimbo. Kuonjezerapo, zingakhale zosangalatsa kuona ngati zolaula zomwe sizimveka komanso zachiwerewere zomwe zili pa intaneti zimasintha zotsatira za zotsatira zomwe taphunzira. Pomaliza, ofufuza ayeneranso kulingalira nkhani za kugonana zotsatiridwa mosiyanasiyana pofuna kuyesa mozama ngati machitidwe achikhalidwe omwe tapeza mwa maonekedwe ndi mafilimu osonyezerako akugwiritsira ntchito mawonekedwe olembedwa. Powonjezereka mndandanda wa zokhudzana ndi kugonana komwe achinyamata akugwiritsira ntchito pakalipano, tizitha kudziwa ngati achinyamata akugonana ndi zochitika zogonana zimakhala zokhudzana ndi chikhulupiliro chawo chogonana.
Kuwonetsera mafilimu owonetsa zakugonana pa intaneti kunali kofunikira pa chitsanzo cha chikhalidwe cha chiyanjano mu chiyanjano pakati pa achinyamata ndi zochitika zogonana ndi zochitika zogonana komanso maganizo awo a amayi monga zinthu zogonana. Kupeza uku kumatsimikizira Brown et al.'S (2006) malingaliro oti zolaula, makamaka pa intaneti komanso mawonekedwe owonera, zimathandiza kwambiri pakupanga zikhulupiriro zogonana za achinyamata. Ngakhale achinyamata sayenera kudya zolaula, amatero (Lo & Wei, 2005; Peter & Valkenburg, 2006) -Ndipo zakudya zawo zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati akukhulupirira kuti amai ndi zinthu zogonana. Intaneti imathandiza kwambiri achinyamata kuti athe kupeza zolaula zakugonana. Izi zinasonyezeranso kuti pamene tikutsutsana, kuwonetseratu mafilimu owonetsa zakugonana pa intaneti kunali kokhudzana kwambiri ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana, pomwe kuwonetsedwa kwa mafilimu owonetsa zakugonana pa DVD kapena DVD sikunali. Ngakhale kuti intaneti ndi yokhayo yokha ndiyo gawo lachidziwitso chodziwika bwino pa nkhani zogonana, zikuwoneka kuti makamaka zimatanthauzira chilengedwe ichi ponena za kugonana kwake. Kugonana kwa chikhalidwe cha achinyamata ndi zomwe zimachitika sizimangotanthauza kuti achinyamata amakhala ndi zosiyana zokhudzana ndi kugonana pakati pazinthu zosiyana siyana; zimatanthauzanso kuti amapeza zolaula zambiri, ndipo izi zimachitika kwambiri pa intaneti. Choncho, zikuwoneka kuti ndizofunika kwambiri kuti ziwonetsedwe zokhudzana ndi kugonana, makamaka pa intaneti ndi maonekedwe owonetserako, zimalandira chidwi kwambiri pa kafukufuku wamtsogolo.
Mosiyana ndi maphunziro ambiri oyambirira, sitinapeze chiyanjano pakati pa achinyamata ndi zovuta zogonana pa TV kapena m'magazini ndi chikhulupiliro chawo chakuti akazi ndi zinthu zogonana. Chiyanjano chachikhalidwe pakati pa kugonana ndi zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi malingaliro a amayi monga zinthu zogonana zinangowonekera ndi achinyamata omwe ali ndi chidziwitso chogonana chomwe chili m'magazini ndi pa TV. Njira ziwiri ndi njira imodzi yofotokozera za izi zikutheka. Choyamba, ife tinagwiritsidwa ntchito pochita zachiwerewere zomwe sizimveka bwino pa TV ndi zosiyana siyana za achinyamata zomwe zimakhudzidwa ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya TV ndi kugonana. Ngakhale kuti mgwirizano ndi zochitika zina sizinatanthauzenso zowopsya, njira yowonjezera yowonjezereka yokhudza kugonana yosagwirizana ndi ma TV yomwe idawonetsedwe bwino ingakhale yopanga zosiyana. Chachiwiri, zikhoza kukhala kuti kuwonetsa zachiwerewere zomwe sizowonekera pa televizioni ziyenera kuwerengedweratu mozama kusiyana ndi zomwe zinachitidwa mu phunziro lathu. Tinasankha, mogwirizana ndi maphunziro apitalo, magulu omwe amadziwika ndi kugonana (mwachitsanzo, sopo, mawonetsero, ndi mafilimu). Komabe, zikhoza kukhala kuti kuwonetsa zachiwerewere zomwe sizowonekera pa televizioni ziyenera kutengedwa ndi kukhudzana ndi sopo kapena mavidiyo ena a nyimbo omwe amadziwika monga makamaka kugonana (mwachitsanzo, bandsta rap nyimbo za nyimbo zomwe amuna amalemekezedwa monga "Pimps" ndipo akazi amawatcha "bitches").
Chotsatira chachitatu, chodziwika bwino cha zomwe timapeza chingatanthauzire njira zowonongeka pakati pa achinyamata. Chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa zochitika zogonana zomwe zilipo kwa achinyamata, zokhudzana ndi kugonana zomwe sizili zoonekeratu zikhoza kukhala zachilendo kwambiri kwa achinyamata kuti sangazindikire mauthenga ogonana. Ndikomwe ngati khalidwe linalake lachiwerewere likuwonetsedwa muzokhudzana ndi kugonana zimakhala zovuta zokhudzana ndi zochitika zokhudzana ndi kugonana, mwachitsanzo, mu kukakamiza amayi kugonana. Zillmann ndi Bryant (1986, 1988) afotokozera zotsatira zoterezi kuti abambo amve zochitika zogonana mobwerezabwereza, komabe zikuthekanso kuti achinyamata akuwonekeratu kugonana pazinthu zofalitsa. Izi zimaphatikizapo kufotokozera zochitikazo-kumvetsetsa ku lingaliro la zochitika zogonana zogonana (Peter, 2004). Zomwe zili zofanana zokhudzana ndi kugonana sizingagwirizane ndi zikhulupiliro za kugonana; mphamvu ya bungwe mwina ingadalire pa ndithu kumene chikhalidwe cha ma TV chimagonana. Malingana ndi kuchuluka kwa kugonana kwa malo owonetsera, zogonana zokhudzana ndi zosiyana siyana zingakhale zokhudzana ndi zikhulupiliro za kugonana. Popeza kuti kafukufuku wambiri akuchokera ku US ndipo maphunziro athu adachitidwa ku Netherlands, akatswiri ochita kafukufuku osiyana-siyana angapeze ntchito yosangalatsa kuyesa nkhani zomwe zimakhudzidwa ndi mgwirizano pakati pa zokhudzana ndi kugonana ndi zikhulupiliro za kugonana.
Azimayi monga zinthu zogonana
Kafukufuku wamakono akuthandizira pa kafukufuku wochepa koma wochititsa chidwi omwe amasonyeza kuti zofanana ndi zojambula za amayi monga zinthu zogonana zikugwirizana ndi malingaliro achichepere a amayi monga zinthu zogonana (Ward, 2002; Ward & Friedman, 2006). Komabe, phunziro lathu likufufuza kafukufuku wakale chifukwa amasonyeza kufunika koti achinyamata adziwe zolaula, makamaka pa intaneti komanso muwonekedwe. Zomwe tapeza zikugwirizana ndi zosiyana siyana zofukufuku. Choyamba, chifukwa chakuti timapeza mafilimu owonetsa zakugonana kuti tigwirizane ndi zomwe akazi amakhulupirira monga zinthu zogonana zimagwirizana ndi zochitika zomwe zawonetsa kuti amai savomerezedwa ndi zolaula (monga Brosius et al., 1993; Cowan et al., 1988; Ertel, 1990). Kugonjetsedwa kumeneku kungabwere chifukwa cha zomwe amuna akunena zokhudza kugonana kwa amayi (Cowan et al., 1988; Ertel, 1990). Chachiwiri, zotsatira zathu zakuti kuwonetsa zolaula pa intaneti m'malo mowonera zomwe zili pavidiyo kapena DVD zimalumikizidwa ndi zikhulupiriro zoti azimayi ndi zinthu zachiwerewere zimathandizira ofufuza omwe ati, chifukwa chopezeka mosavuta, zogonana intaneti itha kutenga gawo lofunikira pamagulu azachinyamata omwe akuchita zachiwerewere (Donnerstein & Smith, 2001; Greenfield, 2004; Thornburgh ndi Lin, 2002).
Pogwiritsa ntchito magawo osiyanasiyana, kafukufukuyu sanathe kuzindikira njira yolunjika pakati paziwonetsero zakugonana komanso zikhulupiriro zomwe akazi amachita. Kuwonetsedwa pazokhudzana ndi zachiwerewere kungalimbikitse zikhulupiriro za achinyamata kuti azimayi ndi zinthu zogonana. Koma, kutengera zomwe takumana nazo, ndizothekanso kuti achinyamata omwe amakhulupirira kuti azimayi ndi zinthu zakugonana amakopeka kwambiri ndi zolaula ndipo chifukwa chake amatembenukira kuzinthu izi pafupipafupi. Chojambulachi chitha kuthetsedwa ndi mapangidwe akutali, kutengera zovuta zamayeso ofufuza zamaphunziro pazokhudza zolaula ndi ana. Mosasamala kanthu kuti kuwonetsedwa pazankhani zogonana kumakhudza zikhulupiriro zoti azimayi ndi zinthu zogonana kapena mosemphanitsa, kuyanjana pakati pa awiriwa ndikofunikira kale pagulu. M'mayiko ambiri azungu, zaka 30 zapitazi awona zoyesayesa zakugonana komwe kumadziwika ndi kufanana pakati pa amuna ndi akazi komanso kumvana ndi kulemekezana. Momwemonso, nkhani monga kugonana kosiyanasiyana, malingaliro olimbana ndi jenda, kuzunza akazi komanso kuzunza akazi alowa nawo pagulu. Ngati tsopano tikuwona kuti - mwa atsikana ndi anyamata - malingaliro azimayi ngati zinthu zogonana amalumikizidwa ndikuwonetsedwa makamaka pazinthu zolaula, titha kuwona kusintha kwakukhudzana ndi media pa jenda komanso zogonana. Malingaliro ndi zotsatira zomwe zaperekedwa pano zitha kuyitanitsa koyamba kuti mufufuze za nkhaniyi.
Kuvomereza
Olembawo angakonde kuthokoza olemba awiri osadziwika chifukwa cha ndemanga zawo zomveka bwino pazokambirana koyambirira kwa nkhaniyi. Phunziroli linalipidwa ndi ndalama kuchokera ku bungwe la Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research (NWO) kwa wolemba woyamba komanso wachiwiri.
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