Ho Braking le ho potlakisa Boko ba Bacha (2011)

J Res Adolesc. 2011 Mar 1;21(1):21-33.

Casey B, Jones RM, Somerville LH.

mohloli o moholo

Sackler Institute for Developmental Psychobiology Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY USA.

inahaneloang

Nako ea bocha ke nako ea nts'etsopele hangata e khethiloeng e le nako ea likhetho tse sa potlakeloang le tse kotsi tse lebisang ho tsengko le eketsehang la likotsi tsa likotsi le pefo, tšebeliso e mpe ea joala le lithethefatsi, ho ima ho sa lebelloang le mafu a tšoaetsanoang ka tsa thobalano. Litlhaloso tsa setso le tsa kelello tsa setso bakeng sa liqeto le liketso tse nyane joalo li sitiloe ho ikarabella bakeng sa liphetoho tse sa bonahaleng tsa boits'oaro bo bonoang lilemong tsa bocha, tse amanang le bongoana le ho ba motho e moholo. Tlhahlobo ena e fana ka "conceptualization" ea biologic e hlakileng e hlalosang mekhoa e tlatselitseng liphetoho tsena tse seng kahare ho boits'oaro, e le ho se leka-lekane pakeng tsa kutloisiso e phahamisitsoeng lithutong tse susumetsang le taolo e sa tsejoeng ea kelello. Boithuto ba morao-rao ba batho le lithuto tsa liphoofolo li fana ka motheo oa tlhaho ea pono ena, li fanang ka maikutlo a ntlafatso e fapaneng ea lits'ebetso tsa methapo e meng e amanang le litsamaiso tsa taolo e tlase nakong ea bocha le ho ba motho e moholo. Mosebetsi ona o totobatsa bohlokoa ba ho hlahloba phetoho ho tsoa le bohlakoreng ba bocha le lintlha tsa bohlokoa tse hlahang tsa lipatlisiso tsa nako e tlang mabapi le mocha boko nts'etsopele.

Keywords: Bocha, boko, nts'etsopele, fMRI, kotsi, ts'usumetso, taolo ea kelello, khokahano

Selelekela

Nako ea bocha e tšoauoa e le nako eo ka eona re etsang lintho ka mokhoa o sa tsitsang, re sa atleheng ho nahana ka litlamorao tsa nako e telele, mme re etsa boits'oaro ba riskier ho feta kamoo re etsang joaloka batho ba baholo.Gardner le Steinberg, 2005; Scott, 1992; Steinberg, et al., 2008). Tlhahiso ena ea ho nka likotsi e bontšoa maemong a phahameng a likotsi, ho ipolaea, litloaelo tse sa bolokehang tsa thobalano le ts'ebetso ea botlokotsebe (Scott, 1992). Bacha ba lilemo tse leshome le metso e mehlano le ba banyenyane ba sebetsa ka mokhoa o potlakileng ho feta bacha ba baholo, empa le bacha ba lilemo tse leshome le metso e tšeletseng le tse leshome le metso e supileng ba hloleha ho bonts'a maemo a batho ba baholo ba ho itaola (Feld, 2008).

Lilemong tse leshome tse fetileng, ho bile le lipelaelo tse ngata tse bonts'ang kelello le methapo ea kutlo bakeng sa hobaneng bacha ba etsa liketso tse potlakileng le tse kotsi. Litlaleho tsa setso tsa bocha li fana ka maikutlo a hore ke nako ea nts'etsopele e amanang le katleho e tsoelang pele ea matla a taolo ea kelello. Ts'ebetso ena ho taolo ea kelello e hlalositsoe e its'etleha holima kholo ea "cortex ea pele" e bonts'itsoeng ke monahano (Galvan, et al., 2006; Gogtay, et al., 2004; Hare, et al., 2008; Sowell, et al., 2003) le lithuto tsa setopo (Bourgeois, Goldman-Rakic, & Rakic, 1994; Huttenlocher, 1979; Rakic, 1994) e bonts'a nts'etsopele e tsoetseng pele le e sebetsang ea sebaka sena hantle hore e be motho e moholo.

Sebopeho se akaretsang sa taolo e ntlafalitsoeng ea temohisiso le phetoho ea cortex ea pele (Crone & van der Molen, 2007) e fana ka maikutlo a keketseho ea melaetsa ho tloha bongoaneng ho ea ho motho e moholo. Haeba taolo ea kelello le "cortex" e tlang pele ho nako e ne e le motheo oa boitšoaro bo ikhethileng bo le bong, bana ba lokela ho shebahala ba ts'oana kapa ba bobe haholo ho feta bacha, ha ba fuoe bokhoni ba bona bo sa ntlafalitsoeng bo ka pele ho bokhoni ba bona.Casey, Getz, & Galvan, 2008). Leha ho le joalo liqeto le liketso tse nyane tse bonoang lilemong tsa bocha li bonts'a tlhahiso ea nts'etsopele (Windle, et al., 2008) e ikhethileng ho tloha bongoaneng kapa ho ba motho e moholo, joalo ka ha ho netefalitsoe ke Setsi sa Naha sa Lipalopalo tsa Bophelo boits'oarong ba bocha le lefu (Eaton, et al., 2008).

Tlhahlobo ena e sebetsana le potso ea mantlha ea hore na boko bo fetoha joang nakong ea bocha ka mekhoa e ka hlalosang inflections ka boits'oaro bo kotsi. Re hlahisa mofuta oa liteko oa neurobiological o totobatsang phumano e matla lipakeng tsa likarolo tsa boko ba subcortical le cortical mme re nahana ka ho hlaha ha litsamaiso tsena ka pono ea ho iphetola ha lintho. Re fana ka bopaki bo tsoang lithutong tsa boits'oaro ba kelello le tsa kelello tsa motho ho ts'ehetsa mohlala ona mohopolong oa liketso maemong a susumetsang (Cauffman, et al., 2010; Figner, Mackinlay, Wilkening, & Weber, 2009; Galvan, Hare, Voss, Glover, le Casey, 2007; Galvan, et al., 2006) le ho rarolla hore na hobaneng bacha ba bang ba ka ba kotsing e kholo ho feta ba bang bakeng sa ho etsa liqeto tse sa lebelloang tse lebisang liphellong tse futsanehileng tsa nako e telele (Galvan, et al., 2007; Hare, et al., 2008).

Eya ho:

Mohlala oa Neurobiological oa Bocha

Khakanyo e nepahetseng ea liphetoho tsa kelello le tsa ramatiki nakong ea bocha li lokela ho nka nako ea bocha e le nako ea phetoho ea nako ea bocha (Spear, 2000), ho e-na le ho thula e le 'ngoe ka nako. Ka mantsoe a mang, ho utloisisa nako ena ea nts'etsopele, ho supa liphetoho le ho kena lilemong tsa bocha hoa hlokahala bakeng sa ho khetholla litšobotsi tse ikhethileng tsa nako ena ea ntlafatso (Casey, Galvan, & Hare, 2005; Casey, Tottenham, Liston, & Durston, 2005). Ho theha li-trajectories tsa nts'etsopele bakeng sa lits'ebetso tsa kelello li bohlokoa ho tšoaea liphetoho tsena le ho hatella litlhaloso ka liphetoho tsa boitšoaro nakong ena.

Re thehile mofuta o lekiloeng oa tsoelo-pele ea bocha ka hare ho moralo ona o thehang mefuteng ea methapo (Brenhouse, Sonntag, le Andersen, 2008; Laviola, Adriani, Terranova, & Gerra, 1999; Spear, 2000) le lithuto tsa morao-rao tsa ho nahana ka bongoana (Ernst, et al., 2005; Galvan, et al., 2007; Galvan, et al., 2006; Hare, et al., 2008; Somerville, Hare, & Casey, ka har'a khatiso; Van Leijenhorst, Moor, et al., 2010; Van Leijenhorst, Zanolie, et al., 2010). Setšoantšo sa 1 e bontša mohlala ona. Tšobotsi ena ea bocha e feta bokantle ba kopano e khethehileng ea boits'oaro bo kotsi ho sa tsitsitseng ha cortex ea pele. Ho fapana le moo, mohlala oa "neurobiological" o bonts'itsoeng o bontša kamoo libaka tse laolehileng tse tlase le tse ling li lokelang ho tsotelloa hammoho. Cartoon e bonts'a li-trajectories tse fapaneng tsa nts'etsopele ea lits'ebetso tsena, ka lits'ebetso tsa subcortical tse joalo ka "ventral striatum" e tsoelang pele pejana ho libaka tsa pele tsa taolo ea pele. Ho ea ka mohlala ona, motho o khethoa ka leihlo le lecha ka libaka tsa bonyenyane lilemong tsa bocha (ke hore, ho se leka-lekane ha subcortical amanang le taolo ea cortical ea pele ho nako), ha a bapisoa le bana, bao litsamaiso tsena (ke hore, subcortical le pele) li ntseng li tsoela pele, le ho bapisoa le batho ba baholo, bao lits'ebetso tsena li holileng ka botlalo ho bona.

Setšoantšo sa 1

Mofuta oa neurobiological o bonts'ang nts'etsopele ea hamorao ea libaka tse holimo pele ho libaka tse amanang le litabatabelo le tšabo. Ho se leka-lekane ha nts'etsopele ea litsamaiso tsena ho khothalletsoa hore e be sesosa sa boits'oaro bo kotsi ba khetho ho bacha ...

Pono ena e fana ka motheo oa liphetoho tse sa amaneng le litloaelo tse kotsi tlasa nts'etsopele, ka lebaka la phetolo ea pele ea litsamaiso tse tlasa maemo a tlase tse amanang le litsamaiso tsa taolo ea pele ho taolo pele. Ka nts'etsopele le boiphihlelo, khokahanyo e sebetsang pakeng tsa libaka tsena e fana ka mokhoa oa taolo e holimo ea potoloho ena (Hare, et al., 2008). Ho feta moo, mohlala o bapisa pherekano ea lipalo tsa bophelo bo botle nakong ea bohlankana, ka ho bonoa ka bokhabane ke Reyna le Farley (2006) hore bacha ba khona ho etsa liqeto tse hlakileng ebile ba utloisisa likotsi tsa boits'oaro boo ba kenang ho bona. Leha ho le joalo, maemong a hlobaetsang a maikutlo, lits'ebetso tsa subcortical li tla atleha (li-accelerator) holim'a lits'ebetso tsa taolo (li-brake) ha li fuoa tloaelo ea tsona ea ho hola ka tsamaiso ea pele ho taolo.

Mohlala ona o tsamaisana le mehlala ea kholo ea bongoana (Ernst, Pine, le Hardin, 2006; Ernst, Romeo, le Andersen, 2009; Geier le Luna, 2009; Nelson, Leibenluft, McClure, & Pine, 2005; Steinberg, 2008; Steinberg, et al., 2009) e fanang ka maikutlo a nts'etsopele ea phapang ea libaka tse subcortical le cortical. Mohlala, mohlala oa boraro bo kopantsoeng ke Ernst le basebetsi mmoho (Ernst, et al., 2006) e hlalosa boits'oaro bo susumetsoang joalo ka ho ba le li-circuits tse tharo tse fapaneng tsa neural (mokhoa, thibelo le taolo). Sisteme ea mokhoa e amana le boits'oaro ba moputso mme e laoloa haholo ke ventral striatum. Sistimi ea ho qoba e amana le boits'oaro ba ho qoba mme e laoloa haholo ke amygdala. Qetellong, tsamaiso ea taolo e leka-lekanya mokhoa le mekhoa ea ho qoba lintho 'me e laoloa haholo ke cortex ea pele. Ka hona, kotsi e eketsehileng ea ho nka boits'oaro nakong ea bocha e bakoa ke tšusumetso e kholo ea mokhoa oa ho atamela le tšusumetso e fokolang ea tsamaiso.

Mohlala oa rona o fapana le ba bang ka hore e thehiloe ho bopaki bo matla ba liphetoho tsa boko eseng feela phetohong ea ho tloha boseeng ho ea ho motho e moholo, empa le phetoho ea ho ba mocha ho tloha bongoaneng. Ntle le moo, ha re khothale hore boikoetliso le bo-amygdala li ikemiselitse ho latela le ho qoba boits'oaro bo fuoang boithuto bo sa tsoa etsoa bo bonts'ang boikemelo ba boikemelo ba likarolo tsena (Levita, et al., 2009), empa ho fapana le hore ke litsamaiso tsa bohlokoa ho khetholla mekhoa e nepahetseng e susumetsang le e ratehang tikolohong e ka khethollang boitšoaro. Boikutlo bona ba ho thabela takatso le maikutlo a monate nakong ea bocha bo hlalositsoe ho mefuta eohle (bona Spear, 2009) mme e ea hlahlojoa mona.

Eya ho:

Mehopolo ea ho bapisa le ea ho iphetola ha lintho ea bongoaneng

Potso e hlahisoang ke mohlala oa ho se leka-lekane oa nts'etsopele ea bongoana ke hore na ke hobane'ng ha boko bo ka hlophisoa hore bo hōle ka tsela ena. Potso ena e ka arajoa ka ho nka mohato o khutlelang morao le ho nka moelelo oa bohlankana e le nako ea phetoho lipakeng tsa bongoana le ho ba motho e moholo. Ho kena bohlankaneng ho tšoaea ho qaleha ha bohlankana kapa boroetsana ka ho qala ha thobalano.Graber & Brooks-Gunn, 1998) hape e ka hlalosoa ke matšoao a tlhaho. Nako ea bocha e ka hlalosoa e le phetoho e tsoelang pele ea ho ba motho e moholo ka thuto ea nakoana ea ho etsa joalo (Spear, 2000, p.419). Puisano e felletseng ea litlamorao tsa li-hormone tsa pubertal bokong le boits'oarong li feta molemong oa pampiri ena; bona (Forbes & Dahl, 2010; Romeo, 2003) bakeng sa litlhahlobo tse qaqileng mabapi le taba ena.

Ha re bua ka tlhaho, nako ea bocha ke nako ea ho fumana boikemelo polokehong ea lelapa, eo ka nako e ts'oanang e ka behang motho eo kotsing (Kelley, Schochet, & Landry, 2004). Boitšoaro ba ho batla boipuso bo bonoa mefuteng eohle ea mammalian, ka keketseho ea litšebelisano-mmoho tse tataisoang ke lithaka le ho matlafala ho tsa bocha tse batlang ho ama tšekamelo ea bacha ea boits'oaro bo kotsi (E sootho, 2004; Chassin, et al., 2004; Collins & Laursen, 2004; Laviola, et al., 1999). Boitšoaro bona bo kotsi bo ka hlalosoa e le sehlahisoa sa ho se lekane ho tlisoang ke tlhaho le lipono tse batlang li kopane le "bokhoni ba ho itaola" (Steinberg, 2004). Khopolo-taba e ka fana ka maikutlo a hore mokhoa ona oa nts'etsopele ke mokhoa oa ho iphetola hoa lintho ka hore motho o hloka ho etsa boitšoaro bo kotsing e kholo ho tlohela ntho e bolokehileng le e tloaetsoeng e le hore a fumane molekane le ho belehaSpear, 2000). Kahoo, ho ipeha kotsing ho bonahala ho tsamaellana le nako eo lihormone li khannang bacha ho batla balekane ba bona. Sechabeng sa kajeno -ha bohlankana bo ka hola ho isa nakong e sa lekanyetsoang- le bana ba lulang le batsoali le ba nang le ts'ehetso ea lichelete le ho khetha balekane hamorao bophelong, boitšoaro bona bo kanna ba se fetohe habonolo. Moetso oa rona oa methapo ea kutlo o fana ka maikutlo a hore sena se etsahala ka kholo e fapaneng ea lits'ebetso tsa subcortical le cortical. Lintlha tsa boits'oaro le boits'oaro ba maikutlo li hlahlojoa bocha ho tšehetsa pono ena.

Eya ho:

Tsoelo-pele ea Boitšoaro ba Bacha

Karolo ea mantlha ea ntlafatso ea boits'oaro ke bokhoni ba ho hatella liketso tse sa lokang molemong oa ba tataisoang ke sepheo, haholoholo ha ho e-na le tšusumetso. Bokhoni bona ka tloaelo bo bitsoa taolo ea kelello (Casey, Galvan, et al., 2005; Casey, Giedd, le Thomas, 2000; Casey, Thomas, et al., 2000). Re lekola lingoliloeng tsa nts'etsopele ea kelello ea mantlha maemong a liphetoho tse tsamaeang le tlhaiso-leseling ka lilemo le ho fana ka bopaki ba boitšoaro le neuroanatomical bakeng sa phapang ea eona boits'oarong bo bobe.

Lithuto tse 'maloa tsa ntlafatso ea khale li bontšitse hore taolo ea kelello e tsoela pele ho pholletsa le bongoana le bohlankana (Nyeoe, 1972; Flavell, Leoatle, le Chinksy, 1966; Keating & Bobbitt, 1978; Pascual-Leone, 1970). Litsebi tse ngata tsa thuto li boletse hore nts'etsopele ena e bakoa ke keketseho ea lebelo la ts'ebetso le ts'ebetso (mohlala, (Bjorklund, 1985, 1987; Nyeoe, 1972)), empa ba bang ba khothalelitse mekhoa ea "inhibitory" ke eona ntlha ea mantlha (Harnishfeger le Bjorklund, 1993). Ho latela tlaleho ena, likhetho tse sa le tlase bongoaneng li bakoa ke ho ts'oaroa ho hoholo ke pherekano ho tsoa mehloling ea tlholisano e lokelang ho hatelloa (mohlala, (Brainerd & Reyna, 1993; Casey, Thomas, Davidson, Kunz, & Franzen, 2002; Dempster, 1993; Taemane, 1985; Munakata & Yerys, 2001). Kahoo ho etsa liqeto tse nepahetseng ho hloka taolo ea litšusumetso (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989) 'me bokhoni bona bo hola ka tsela e lumellanang ho theosa le bongoana (Eigsti, et al., 2006).

Ka lehlakoreng le leng, ho ipeha kotsing ea ho fumana menyetla ea ho etsa boits'oaro, ho bonahala e le tlhoro lilemong tsa bocha ebe ho theoha ho ba motho e moholo.Eaton, et al., 2008; Windle, et al., 2008) hape li tsamaisana le ho feto-fetoha ha maemo a ho ba mofuthuDahl, 2004; Martin, et al., 2001). Phuputso ea morao tjena ke Steinberg et al. (2008) e hlalositse mokhoa oa ho etsa lintho tse susumetsang, tse hlalosang takatso ea ho batla boiphihlelo ba boiqapelo le ho beha likotsi bakeng sa ho li fihlela. Ba ile ba leka batho ba pakeng tsa 10 le 30 mme ba bonts'a hore phapang ea maikutlo a batlang botsofaling e latela mokhoa o fetelletseng, ka lipalo tsa maikutlo a batlang ho eketseha pakeng tsa lilemo tsa 10 le 15 mme ea theoha kapa ea sala e tsitsitse kamora moo. Ka lehlakoreng le leng, phapang ea lilemo ho impulifity e ile ea latela mohlala, mme ea fokotseha habonolo le botsofaling.

Liphumano tsena li fana ka maikutlo a ikhethang a ntlafalitsoeng a li-trajectories tse peli. Ka ho khetheha, ho nkeha maikutlo ho fokotseha le lilemo ho isa bongoaneng le bonyaneng (Casey, Galvan, et al., 2005; Casey, Thomas, et al., 2002; Galvan, et al., 2007), leha ho e-na le phapang ea hore na motho ea fuoeng o susumetsoa kapa che, ho sa tsotellehe lilemo (Eigsti, et al., 2006). Ho fapana le taolo ea tšusumetso / kelello, ho batla / ho ipeha kotsing ho bonahala ho bonts'a mokhoa o kopanetsoeng, le keketseho nakong ea bocha e amanang le bongoana le ho ba motho e moholo.Cauffman, et al., 2010; Figner, et al., 2009; Galvan, et al., 2007). Joalokaha ho tla hlahlojoa likarolong tse latelang, liphumano tsena li supa mokhoa o ikhethileng oa neural bakeng sa ho theha boits'oaro bo kotsi, bo arohaneng le tsamaiso ea neural bakeng sa taolo ea tšusumetso, ka nts'etsopele ea kotsi ea ho nka boits'oaro e amanang le tsoelopele ea taolo ea tšusumetso (Galvan, et al., 2007; Steinberg, et al., 2008).

Eya ho:

Tsoelo-pele ea Boko ba lilemong tsa bocha

Patlisiso ea morao-rao ea nts'etsopele ea bongoana e thehiloe holima tsoelo-pele ea mekhoa ea neuroimaging e ka sebelisoang habonolo ka ho nts'etsopele ea batho. Mekgwa ena e itshetlehile hodima mekgwa ya magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) mme e kenyelletsa: MRI ea sebopeho, e sebelisetsoang ho lekanya boholo le sebopeho sa sebopeho; tšebetso ea MRI (fMRI) e sebelisetsoang ho lekanya lipaterone tsa tšebetso ea boko; le infusion tensor imaging (DTI) e sebelisetsoang ho supa khokahano ea lipampitšana tsa fiber tse tšoeu. Bopaki ba moralo oa rona oa nts'etsopele oa tlholisano lipakeng tsa libaka tsa cortical le subcortical bo tšehetsoa ke khokahano ea mesebetsi le tšebetso e lekantsoeng ke DTI le fMRI, ka ho latellana.

Lithuto tsa MRI tsa Nts'etsopele ea Boko ba Motho

Boithuto bo 'maloa bo sebelisitse MRI ea sebopeho ho etsa' mapa oa kholo ea kholo ea kholo e tloaelehileng (sheba tlhaiso (Casey, Tottenham, et al., 2005)). Leha boholo ba boholo ba boko bo batla bo lekana le 90% ea boholo ba eona ka lilemo tse ts'eletseng, karolo e putsoa le e tšoeu ea kelello e ntse e tsoela pele ho ba le liphetoho tse matla nakong ea bocha. Boitsebiso bo tsoang boithuto ba morao-rao ba MRI bo bonts'a hore bophahamo ba litaba tsa bohlooho bo na le sebopeho se senngoeng sa U, ka phapang e kholo ho feta taba e tšoeu (Giedd, 2004; Gogtay, et al., 2004; Sowell, et al., 2003; Sowell, Thompson, & Toga, 2004). Ka kakaretso, libaka tse ts'ehetsang mesebetsi ea mantlha, e kang tsamaiso ea makoloi le ea sensory, e holileng tsebong; libaka tse hloahloa tsa kopano e hokahanyang mesebetsi ena ea mantlha, e holileng tsebong hamorao (Gogtay, et al., 2004; Sowell, et al., 2004). Mohlala, lithuto tse sebelisang mehato e thehiloeng ho MRI li bonts'a hore tahlehelo ea boea ba cortical gray e etsahala pele libakeng tsa sensorimotor tsa mantlha le tsa morao-rao litabeng tsa dorsolateral pele le tsa morao-rao tsa nakoana (Gogtay, et al., 2004). Sebopeho sena se lumellana le lithuto tsa batho ba morao-rao eseng tsa motho le tsa postmortem tse bonts'ang hore preortalal cortex ke e 'ngoe ea likarolo tsa ho qetela tsa boko ho hola (Bourgeois, et al., 1994; Huttenlocher, 1979) ha libaka tsa subcortical le sensorimotor li hola haufinyane. Ha e bapisoa le taba e putsoa, ​​bophahamo ba litaba tse tšoeu bo eketseha ka tsela e batlang e tšoana, e ntse e hola ho hola ho fihlela motho e moholo.Gogtay, et al., 2004). Liphetoho tsena li bonts'a tloaelo ea li-axon ke li-oligodendrocyte tse ntlafatsang tlhahiso ea methapo le puisano ea khokahano e nepahetseng.

Leha tlhokomelo e sa tsotelleloe ho libaka tse tlasa maemo a tlase ha ho hlahlojoa liphetoho tsa sebopeho, liphetoho tse ling tse kholo ka ho fetisisa bokong ho fihlela nts'etsopele li bonoa likarolong tsa basal ganglia tse kang striatum (Sowell, Thompson, Holmes, Jernigan, & Toga, 1999), haholoholo ho banna (Giedd, et al., 1996). Liphetoho tsena tsa nts'etsopele ea bophahamo ba sebopeho kahara basal ganglia le libaka tsa pele li bontša hore likhokahano tsa cortical li ntse li ntlafatsoa haholo ho latela mekhoa ea ntlafatso ea neural (mohlala dendritic arborization, cell cell, pruning pruning, myelination) tse etsahalang nakong ea bongoana le bohlankana (Huttenlocher, 1979). Ts'ebetso tsena li lumella tokiso e ntle le matlafatso ea khokahano lipakeng tsa libaka tsa pele le tsa subcortical ka ho ithuta ho ka tsamaellanang le taolo e kholo ea kelello (mohlala, ho supa libaka tse laoloang pele ho lokisa boitšoaro) (Casey, Amso, & Davidson, 2006; Casey le Durston, 2006).

Ha ho hlake hantle hore na liphetoho tsa sebopeho li amana joang le liphetoho tsa boitšoaro. Boithuto bo 'maloa bo bontšitse likamano tse sa nepahalang lipakeng tsa phetoho ea volumetric e thehiloeng ho MRI le ts'ebetso ea kelello e sebelisang mehato ea neuropsychological (mohlala, (Casey, Castellanos, et al., 1997; Sowell, et al., 2003)). Ka ho khetheha, mekhatlo e tlalehiloe pakeng tsa MRI e thehiloeng pele ea cortical le basal ganglia lebelo le mehato ea taolo ea kelello (ke hore, bokhoni ba ho fetisa khetho / ketso e sa lokang molemong oa e mong (Casey, Castellanos, et al., 1997) (Casey, Mokoetlisi, et al., 1997)). Liphumano tsena li fana ka maikutlo a hore liphetoho tse hlokisang kelello li bonts'oa liphetoho tsa sebopeho 'me li totobatsa bohlokoa ba nts'etsopele ea subcortical (striatum) hammoho le cortical (mohlala, preortal cortex).

Lithuto tsa DTI tsa Nts'etsopele ea Boko ba Motho

Boithuto bo thehiloeng ho moralo oa MRI bo hlahlojoang bo fana ka maikutlo a hore khokahano ea cortical e ntse e hlophisitsoe hantle ka ho felisoa ha li-synapses tse ngata le ho matlafatsa likhokelo tse amanang le nts'etsopele le boiphihlelo. Tsoelo-pele ea morao-rao mahlaleng a MRI joalo ka DTI e fana ka sesebelisoa sa ho lekola phetoho ea phetisetso ea lipampitšana tsa litaba tse tšoeu tse amanang le kamano ea bona le boitšoaro. Phuputsong e 'ngoe, nts'etsopele ea taolo ea kelello e ne e hokahane hantle le lipampitšana tsa pele ho tsa parietal fiber (Nagy, Westerberg, & Klingberg, 2004) e lumellanang le lithuto tse sebetsanang le ho thusa ho hira libaka tsena ho bana ba amanang le (Klingberg, Forssberg, & Westerberg, 2002).

U sebelisa mokhoa o tšoanang. Liston le basebetsi-'moho (2006) e ile ea hlahloba matla a lipampitšana tsa litaba tse tšoeu tse lipotolohong tse tlang pele ho tsa bongoana, tse ntseng li tsoela pele ho hola bongoaneng ho fihlela e le motho e moholo. Lipampitšana tsa fiberostostatatal fiber li ile tsa hlalosoa ka ho hokahanya libaka tse peli tse khahlisang ho striatum le cortex ea preralal preortal cortex e khethiloeng thutong ea fMRI e sebelisa mosebetsi o tšoanang (Durston, Thomas, Worden, Yang, & Casey, 2002; Epstein, et al., 2007). Ntle le lithuto tsena tsa nts'etsopele ea DTI, mehato ea pampitšana ea fiber ho fihlela bokong kaofela e ne e hokahane le nts'etsopele. Leha ho le joalo, ho ne ho e-na le ho qaqileng moo lipampitšana tse ling tsa fiber li amanang le taolo ea kelello (Casey, et al., 2007; Liston, et al., 2006) kapa bokhoni ba ho lemoha (Nagy, et al., 2004). Ka ho khetheha, matla a khokahano ea lebelo le ka pele a rerile ka nepo matla a taolo a ho susumetsa, joalo ka ha a lekantsoe ke ts'ebetso ea mosebetsi oa ho ea / nogo (Casey, et al., 2007; Liston, et al., 2006). Liphumano tsena li hatisa bohlokoa ba ho hlahloba eseng feela liphetoho tsa sebopeho sa tikoloho, empa le liphetoho tse amanang le potoloho ha li etsa likopo mabapi le ho fetoha ha maemo ho latela maemo a hanyane ka hanyane a kelello a nts'etsopele ea kelello.

Lithuto tse sebetsang tsa MRI tsa Behaisheral and Brain Development

Leha liphetoho tsa sebopeho joalo ka ha li lekantsoe ke MRI le DTI li amahantsoe le liphetoho tsa boits'oaro nakong ea nts'etsopele, mokhoa o hlakileng haholoanyane oa ho lekola mekhatlo ea tšebetso ea sebopeho ke ho lekola liphetoho bokong le boits'oong ka nako e le ngoe, joalo ka fMRI. Bokhoni ba ho lekanya liphetoho tse sebetsang bokong bo ntseng bo eketseha le MRI bo na le monyetla o moholo bakeng sa lefapha la saense ea nts'etsopele. Maemong a sengoloa sa morao tjena, fMRI e fana ka mokhoa oa ho qobella litlhaloso tsa ho etsa liqeto tsa mocha. Joalokaha ho boletsoe pejana, nts'etsopele ea cortex ea pele e lumeloa hore e bapala karolo ea bohlokoa ho ntlafatseng bokhoni ba tsebo e phahameng joalo ka ho etsa liqeto le boits'oaro bo ikemiselitseng khetho (Casey, Tottenham le Fossella, 2002; Casey, Mokoetlisi, et al., 1997). Ho sebelisitsoe lipapatso tse ngata, hammoho le fMRI, ho lekola motheo oa methapo ea bokhoni bona. Liphetoho tsena li kenyelletsa "go / nogo" ((barupeluoa ba tlameha ho arabela khothatsong e le 'ngoe empa ba hatelle likarabo ho e' ngoe e u khothalletsang) (barupeluoa ba khetha tataiso ea sepheo se pota-potiloeng ke matšoao a lumellanang kapa a sa lumellaneng le sepheo), lets'oao la ho emisa (barupeluoa ba araba ka potlako kamoo ho ka khonehang ho tsusumetso empa ba tlameha ho hatella karabelo ena ha ba fumana letšoao la ho emisa joalo ka molumo oa molumo), le mesebetsi e hanyetsanang (barupeluoa ba tlameha ho thibela ho sisinyeha ha mahlo ho sheba ka lehlakoreng le leng la sepheo) (Bunge, Dudukovic, Thomason, Vaidya, le Gabrieli, 2002; Casey, Giedd, et al., 2000; Casey, Mokoetlisi, et al., 1997; Durston, et al., 2003; Luna, et al., 2001). Ka kopanelo, lithuto tsena li bonts'a hore bana ba hira libaka tse ikhethileng empa hangata li le ngata, li senya libaka tsa pele ha ba etsa mesebetsi ena ho feta batho ba baholo. Mokhoa oa ts'ebetso kahare ho likarolo tsa boko o bohareng ba tšebetso ea mesebetsi (ke hore, o lumellanang le ts'ebetso ea kelello) o shebane le ho feta kapa o hlophisehile hantle ka lilemo; ha libaka tse sa tsamaellane le ts'ebetso ea mosebetsi li fokotseha ts'ebetsong le lilemo. Sebopeho sena se bonoe likarolong tsohle tse peli tsa sefapano (Brown, et al., 2005) le lithuto tse telele (Durston, et al., 2006) le ho fetela lipapatso tse fapaneng.

Leha lithuto tsa neuroimaging li ke ke tsa bonts'a ka mokhoa o hlakileng mokhoa oa liphetoho tse joalo tsa nts'etsopele (mohlala dendritic arborization, pruning pruning) liphuputso li bonts'a ntlafatso kahare, le ntlafatso ea, likhakanyo ho ea le ho tsoa libakeng tse sebetseng tsa boko ka mofuthu. Ho feta moo, liphumano li fana ka maikutlo a hore liphetoho tsena tsa neuroanatomical li etsahala ka nako e telele e sa sebetseng (Brown, et al., 2005; Bunge, et al., 2002; Casey, Thomas, et al., 2002; Casey, Mokoetlisi, et al., 1997; Crone, Donohue, Honomichl, Wendelken, & Bunge, 2006; Luna, et al., 2001; Mose, et al., 2002; Schlaggar, et al., 2002; Boko, Menon, & Reiss, 2002; Thomas, et al., 2004; Turkeltaub, Gareau, Lipalesa, Zeffiro, le Edene, 2003).

Mokhoa oo o ka re tsebisa joang hore na liqeto tsa bocha li hlile li potlakile kapa li kotsi? Taolo ea tšusumetso joalo ka ha e lekantsoe ke mesebetsi e joalo ka mosebetsi oa ho ea / nogo e bonts'a mohlala oa nts'etsopele ea bongoaneng le bongoaneng joalo ka ha ho hlalositsoe kaholimo. Leha ho le joalo, lithuto tsa morao-rao tsa morao-rao li se li qalile ho hlahloba ts'ebetso e amanang le moputso e amanang le ho ipeha kotsing ho batjha (Bjork, et al., 2004; Ernst, et al., 2005; Galvan, et al., 2005; Mots'eanong, et al., 2004; Van Leijenhorst, Moor, et al., 2010). Lithuto tsena li tsepamisitse maikutlo haholo holo tikolohong ea sebaka sa karo-karolelano ea tikoloho.

Eya ho:

Boikutlo ba ho anya ka mekhoa ea boiketsetso bo lilemong tsa bocha

Moetso oa rona oa "neurobiological" o bonts'a hore ho kopanngwa ha karabelo e phahamisitsoeng ho litekanyetso tse susumetsang le ho se tsitse ha taolo ea boits'oaro ho ka etsa hore bacha ba batle kapele, ho e-na le melemo ea nako e telele. Ho lelekisa subcortical (mohlala, nts'etsopele ea "ventral striatum) le" cortical (mohlala, pele) ho hola bongoaneng ho fihlela motho e moholo e fana ka litšitiso tsa hore na liphetoho tse tlalehiloeng bongoaneng li ikhethile nakong ena ea kholo kapa li bontša ho fetoha hoa mmele ho etsahalang ka mokhoa o ts'oanang ho tloha bongoaneng ho ba motho e moholo.

Lihlopha tse 'maloa li bontšitse hore bacha ba bonts'a ts'ebetso e kholo ea ts'ebetso ea "ventral striatum" ka tebello le / kapa ho fumana moputso ha ba bapisoa le batho ba baholo.Ernst, et al., 2005; Galvan, et al., 2006; Geier, Terwilliger, Teslovich, Velanova, & Luna, 2009; Van Leijenhorst, Zanolie, et al., 2010), e kopantsoe le ts'ebetso e fokolang sebakeng sa pele sa cortex se amanang le batho ba baholo. Ho e 'ngoe ea lithuto tsa pele tsa ho hlahloba karabelo ena ho pholletsa le maemo a felletseng a bongoana ho fihlela e le motho e moholo ea bitsoang Galvan le basebetsi-mmoho le eena ba ile ba hlahloba likarabo tsa boits'oaro le tsa neural ho fana ka moputso oa 6 ho bana ba lilemo tsa 29. Ba tsepamisitse maikutlo ho potoloheng ha boko ho amehang thutong e amanang le moputso le boits'oaro lithutong tsa liphoofolo (Hikosaka le Watanabe, 2000; Pecina, Cagniard, Berridge, Aldridge, le Zhuang, 2003; Schultz, 2006), lithuto tsa ho nahana ka batho ba baholo (mohlala (Knutson, Adams, Fong, & Hommer, 2001; O'Doherty, Kringelbach, Rolls, Hornak, le Andrews, 2001; Zald, et al., 2004)) le lithutong tsa bokhoba ba tahi (Hyman le Malenka, 2001; Volkow & Li, 2004). E ipapisitse le mehlala ea litoebaLaviola, et al., 1999; Spear, 2000) le mosebetsi oa ho nahana ka pele (Ernst, et al., 2005), ba kholoa hore setho le bana le batho ba baholo, bacha ba ka bonts'a ts'ebetso e fetelletseng ea "ventral striatum" khonsateng ka ho hira batho ba holileng pele ba laola libaka pele. Liphetho tsa bona li ile tsa ts'ehetsa polelo ena e bonts'ang hore bophahamo ba sebaka sa tšebetso ea bongo ho bacha lilemong tse kenang molemong oa ho putsa, bo ne bo tšoana le bo bonoang ho batho ba baholo, athe boholo ba tšebetso libakeng tse tlang pele le bona bo ne bo tšoana le bana. Boholo ba tšebetso lipakeng tsa libaka tsena tse peli bo ne bo amahanngoa le bophahamo bo boholo ba ts'ebetso ho boemo ba moea ba bongoana bo amanang le bana le batho ba baholo ba nahanang hore ba hlahisitsoe ke ho se leka-lekane ho nts'etsopele ea corticosubcortial (bona Setšoantšo sa 2). Mosebetsi oa morao-rao o bonts'ang ts'ebelisanommoho e sebetsang pakeng tsa libaka tsa pele le tsa subcortical lilemong tsa bocha tse amanang le batho ba baholo li fana ka mokhoa oa ho hloka taolo e holimo ea libaka tse amanang le ts'ebetso ea methati e susumetsang (Hare, et al., 2008).

Setšoantšo sa 2

Ts'ebetso ho "ventral striatum" ho moputso o lebelletsoeng e le ts'ebetso ea lilemo, bakeng sa thuto ka 'ngoe, e bonts'a tšebetso e ntlafalitsoeng lipakeng tsa 13 ho isa lilemong tsa 18 (E fetotsoe ho tloha Galvan et al., 2006; 2007).

Liphumano tsena li tsamaisana hantle le mefuta ea methaka (Laviola, Macri, Morley-Fletcher, le Adriani, 2003) le lithuto tse fetileng tsa monahano (Ernst, et al., 2005; Van Leijenhorst, Moor, et al., 2010) ho bonts'a tšebetso e ntlafalitsoeng ea tšebetso ea boemo ba moea ho fumana meputso le tebello ea moputso nakong ea bocha. E amanang le bana le batho ba baholo, bacha ba bontšitse karabelo e fetelletseng ea moea oa bongoaneng oa moputso. Le ha ho le joalo, bana le bacha ba bontšitse karabelo e fokolang tsebong libakeng tsa taolo ea pele ho feta batho ba baholo. Liphumano tsena li fana ka maikutlo a fapaneng a ntlafatso ea libaka bakeng sa libaka tsena tse ka eketsang katoloso ea tšebetso ea bosholu ba naha, e amanang le bana kapa batho ba baholo, e ka amanang le liqeto tse kotsi tse hlokometsoeng nakong ena ea ntlafatso (Figner, et al., 2009). Ho bohlokoa ho hlokomela hore le ha li laboratori tse 'maloa (Ernst, et al., 2005; Galvan, et al., 2006; Geier, et al., 2009; Somerville, et al., Ka khatiso; Van Leijenhorst, Moor, et al., 2010) e bontšitse karabelo ena e phahamisitsoeng maemong a kenang ka hare ho bacha, laboratori e le 'ngoe e sitiloe ho bona karabo ena (Bjork, et al., 2004; Bjork, Smith, Chen, & Hommer, 2010) Lithupelo tsa nako e tlang li tla hlokahala ho hlakisa maemo a ikhethang a ts'ebetso ena ea ts'ebetso ea ts'ebetso ea boko kapa e sa bonoeng.

Ho bokelloa ka mokhoa o fapaneng oa libaka tsa pele le tsa subcortical ho tlalehiloe ho pholletsa le lithuto tse 'maloa tsa nts'etsopele ea fMRI (Casey, Thomas, et al., 2002; Geier, et al., 2009; Luna, et al., 2001; Monk, et al., 2003; Thomas, et al., 2004; Van Leijenhorst, Zanolie, et al., 2010). Ka tloaelo liphumano tsena li hlalositsoe ho latela libaka tse tlileng pele ho pele ho feta tikoloho ho fapana le ho se lekane pakeng tsa nts'etsopele ea sebaka sa pele le subcortical. Ho fanoe ka bopaki ba libaka tsa pele ho tataisa liketso tse nepahetseng maemong a fapaneng (Miller & Cohen, 2001), ts'ebetso ea pele ho nako e ka sitisa khakanyo e nepahetseng ea sephetho sa kamoso le ho lekola likhetho tse kotsi, 'me ka hona, e ka ba le tšusumetso e kholo ho boleng ba moputso ho feta ts'ebetso ea "ventral striatum". Mokhoa ona o lumellana le lipatlisiso tse fetileng tse bonts'ang maemo a tlase a amanang le ts'ebetso ea maikutlo ha liqeto li khethoa ke melemo ea nako e telele (McClure, Laibson, Loewenstein, & Cohen, 2004). Nakong ea bocha, ho amana le bongoana kapa ho ba motho e moholo, ho kenella pele ho nako ea cortex ho ka se fane ka matla a lekaneng a taolo ea libaka tse sebetsanang le moputso (mohlala, li-ventral striatum), tse hlahisang tšusumetso e nyane ea litsamaiso tsa pele ho tlholeho ho latela boleng ba moputso.

Le ha ho hapiloe libaka tsa cortical le subcortical ka mokhoa o fapaneng ho tlalehiloe ka mokhoa o batsi ho ntlafatso, ke lithuto tse fokolang feela tse sebetsaneng le taolo ea kelello le tsamaiso ea moputso e sebelisanang. Phuputso ea morao tjena ke (Geier, et al., 2009) e ile ea hlahloba tšebelisano-'ngoe ena ka ho sebelisa mofuta oa mosebetsi o thibelang likoluoa ​​nakong ea fMRI ho bacha le batho ba baholo. Liphumano tsa bona li bonts'a hore litekong tseo chelete e neng e le kotsing, ts'ebetso e matlafalitsoe, ka ntlafatso e kholo haholo (likarabo tse potlakileng le tse nepahetseng haholoanyane) e hlokometsoeng ho bacha. Ts'ebetso ena e ne e bapisoa le ts'ebetso e fetelletseng ea ts'ebetso ea "ventral striatum" lilemong tsa bocha ka mor'a polelo e reng nyeoe e latelang e tla putsoa ha ba ntse ba itokisetsa le ho phethahatsa antisaccade eo hamorao. Bacha ba boetse ba bonts'a mesebetsi e phahameng ea mantlha libakeng tse bohlokoa bakeng sa ho laola ho sisinyeha ha mahlo. Liphetho tsena li hlahisa tlhahiso e amanang le moputso libakeng tsena tsa taolo.

Boithuto ba Geier bo fana ka mohlala oa tsela eo lithahasello tsa takatso ea lijo li ka tsamaisang ts'ebetso ea kelello bathong ba lilemong tsa bocha. Ho leka tšibollo ena, Somerville le basebetsi mmoho (Somerville, et al., Ka phatlalatso) ba ile ba leka bana, bacha le batho ba baholo ha ba ntse ba etsa mosebetsi oa ho nogo moo ba ileng ba tlameha ho hatella karabo ho tjantjello ea maikutlo a sechaba. O bontšitse hore bacha ba na le bothata bo boholo ba ho hanela litakatso tsa boithabiso ha ba bapisoa le bana le batho ba baholo, joalo ka bopaki ba lits'oaetso tsa leshano tse fetang tsena. Ts'ebetso ena ea boits'oaro e ne e bapisoa le ts'ebetso e ntlafalitsoeng ho ventral striatum. Ka lehlakoreng le leng, ts'ebetso ho cortex ea pele e ne e amahanngoa le ho nepahala ka botlalo mme e bonts'itse ho fokotseha hoa ts'ebetso le ntlafatso ea ts'ebetso le lilemo. Tlhahlobo e sebetsang ea khokahanyo e bonts'itse dorsal striatum e le sebaka sa bohlokoa se kopanyang matšoao a cortical le subcortical. Ka kopanelo, lithuto tsena li fana ka maikutlo a hore phapang ea boitšoaro ba bocha ho tsoa ho batho ba baholo e latela maemo a boitšoaro. Maemong a laotsoeng ka mokhoa o hlophisitsoeng, lits'ebetso tse ikhethileng tse kenelletseng ho khethollleng mekhoa ea takatso ea lijo li tla atleha (li-accelerator) holim'a litsamaiso tsa taolo ea cortical (brake), ha li fuoa nts'etsopele ea tikoloho. Leha ho le joalo, maemong ao ho ona litakatso tse sa thabiseng kapa tse khahlisang li leng sieo, litsamaiso tsa taolo ea cortical ha li senyehe, li lebisa ts'ebetsong e nepahetseng ho bacha.

Eya ho:

Nako ea bocha le phapang ea motho ka mong

Batho ka bomong ba fapana ka bokhoni ba bona ba ho laola litšusumetso le ho ipeheng kotsing, ketsahalo e 'nileng ea amoheloa ho psychology ka nako e telele (Benthin, Slovic, & Severson, 1993). Ka hona, bacha ba bang ba khona ho etsa boitšoaro bo kotsi, 'me ba tloaetse ho ba le liphetho tse fokolang. Kahoo, ho hlahloba phapano ea motho ka mong ho ka thusa ho supa matšoao a boits'oaro a bio ho khetholla batho ba ka bang kotsing e kholo ea litholoana tse mpe nakong ea bohlankana.

Mohlala oa khale oa liphapang tse tlalehiloeng ka bokhoni bona ho lingoliloeng tsa saense ea sechaba, kelello le nts'etsopele ke oa ho lieha ho khotsofatsa (Mischel, et al., 1989). Ho lieha ho khotsofala ho hlahlojoa hangata ho 3 ho bana ba lilemo li 4. Ngoana o botsoa hore na ba ka khetha moputso o nyane (marshmallow) hona joale kapa moputso o moholo (marshmallows) hamorao. Ngoana o bolelloa hore ea lekang o tla tsoa ka phapusing e le hore a itokisetse liketsahalo tse tlang mme o hlalosetsa ngoana hore haeba a lula setulong sa hae mme a sa jelle marshmallow nakong eo, o tla amohela moputso o moholo oa bobeli marshmallows. Haeba ngoana a sa emele kapa a sa khone ho emela, o lokela ho letsa mohala ho bitsa sebapali ebe o amohela moputso o nyane. Ha ho hlakile hore ngoana o utloisisa mosebetsi, o lutse tafoleng ka meputso e 'meli le mohala. Litšitiso ka phapusing lia fokotsoa, ​​ho se na lintho tsa ho bapala, libuka kapa litšoantšo. Liteko li khutla kamora metsotso ea 15 kapa kamora hore ngoana a hlake tšepe, a je meputso, kapa a bontše matšoao a khatello. A sebelisa paradigm ena, Mischel e bonts'itse hore bana ba tloaetse ho phela ka tsela e 'ngoe ho tse peli mosebetsing ona: 1) ba letsa tšepe hoo e ka bang hang hang hore ba be le marshmallow, ho bolelang hore ba fumana e le' ngoe feela; 2) ba emela le ho ntlafatsa menyetla ea bona, 'me ba amohela maraka ka bobeli. Tlhatlhobo ena e fana ka maikutlo a hore batho ba bang ba betere ho feta ba bang matleng a bona a ho laola litšusumetso ha ba shebane le tšusumetso e matla haholo mme khethollo ena e ka fumanoa bongoaneng.Mischel, et al., 1989) 'me ho bonahala e lula lilemong tsa bocha le ho ba motho e moholo lilemong.Eigsti, et al., 2006).

Ke eng e ka hlalosang liphapang tse fapaneng ka boits'oaro bo nepahetseng? Ba bang ba theorist ba tiisa hore dopaminergic mesolimbic circry, e kentsoeng ts'ebetsong ea meputso, e ka ba le boitšoaro bo kotsi (Blum, et al., 2000). Lithuto tsa nts'etsopele li fana ka bopaki ba methapo ea kutlo bo bonts'a hore tekanyo bokong ba bongoana lipakeng tsa sistimi ea dopamine ea cortical le subcortical dopamine e qala ho fetohela maemong a maholo a cortical dopamine nakong ea bocha.Brenhouse, et al., 2008; Spear, 2000). Ka mokhoa o ts'oanang, ho na le nako e liehang ea ho hlophisoa ha dopaminergic ea cortex eo e seng motho kapa bokhoni ba ho ba motho e moholo ea fanang ka maikutlo a hore kholo e sebetsang ha e fihlelle ho fihlela motho e moholo.Rosenberg le Lewis, 1995). Phapang pakeng tsa motho ka mong ho potoloho ena, joalo ka mefuta e fapaneng ea liphatsa tsa lefutso tse amanang le dopamine, e bakang dopamine e nyane haholo kapa e ngata haholo libakeng tse tlasa subportical, e ka amana le boholo ba ba bang ba ho etsa boits'oaro bo kotsi ho feta ba bang (O'Doherty, 2004).

Ho ile ha bonts'oa ts'ebetso ea "ventral striatum" e eketsa ts'ebetso hanghang pele ho etsoa likhetho tse kotsi maemong a kotsi a lichelete (Kuhnen le Knutson, 2005; Matthews, Simmons, Lane, & Paulus, 2004; Montague le Berns, 2002) 'me joalo ka ha ho hlalositsoe pejana, bacha ba bonts'a ketso e fetelletseng ea litholoana tse khotsofatsang tse amanang le bana kapa batho ba baholo.Ernst, et al., 2005; Galvan, et al., 2006). Ka kopanelo, lintlha tsena li fana ka maikutlo a hore bacha ba ka ba monyetleng oa ho khetha likotsi tse le sehlopha e le sehlopha (Figner, et al., 2009; Gardner le Steinberg, 2005), empa bacha ba bang ba tla potlakela ho feta ba bang ho etsa lintho tse ka behang bophelo ba bona kotsing, ka ho ba beha kotsing e kholo ea litlamorao tse mpe.

Ho hlahloba liphapang tsa batho ba kotsing ea ho nka boits'oaro Galvan le basebetsi mmoho (2007) e lekotse botsoalle lipakeng tsa ts'ebetso ea lipotoloho tse amanang le moputso ho arabela moputso o moholo oa chelete o nang le mekhoa ea boits'oaro ea ho ipeha kotsing le ho se ts'oenyehe bocheng. Litšoantšo tse sebetsang tsa matla a khoheli le litekanyo tse sa tsejoeng tsa boits'oaro ba boits'oaro bo kotsi, temohisiso ea kotsi le ho hloka takatso li fumanoe ho batho ba pakeng tsa lilemo tse 7 le 29. Ho ne ho e-na le kopano e ntle lipakeng tsa tšebetso ea pelehi le monyetla oa ho etsa boits'oaro bo kotsi ho pholletsa le nts'etsopele. Ketsahalo ena e ne e fapana e le ts'ebetso ea lintlha tsa batho ka bomong tse lebelletsoeng ke litlamorao tse ntle kapa tse mpe tsa boitšoaro bo joalo. Batho ba boneng boits'oaro bo kotsi bo lebisang liphellong tse bohloko, ba sebelisitse ventral striatum hanyane ho putsa. Mokhatlo ona o mobe o ne o khannoa ke bankakarolo ba bana, athe botsoalle bo nepahetseng bo ne bo bonoa ho batho ba baholo ba lekantseng litlamorao tsa boitšoaro bo joalo e le tse ntle.

Ntle le ho hokela kotsi e ka fumanoang ho putsa potoloho, Galvan ha a ka a bontša setsoalle pakeng tsa tšebetso ea potoloho ena le litekanyetso tsa ho susumetsoa (Galvan, et al., 2007). Ho fapana le moo o ile a bontša hore ho kena bohlasoa ho ne ho amana hantle le lilemo. Ho fumana sena ho tsamaisana le tlaleho ea morao tjena Steinberg (2008) ho bonts'a kholo ea kholo ea ho batla maikutlo le ho se ts'oenyehe, ka maikutlo a batlang ho eketseha nakong ea bocha mabapi le bongoana le ho ba motho e moholo, empa ho se ts'oenyehe ho latela mokhoa o ts'oanang oa ho fokotseha ka lilemo. Liphuputso tsena li fana ka maikutlo a hore nakong ea bocha, batho ba bang ba ka ba le tšekamelo e kholo ea ho etsa boits'oaro bo kotsi ka lebaka la liphetoho tsa kholo khonsateng le phapang pakeng tsa motho ea itseng ea ho etsa boits'oaro bo kotsi, ho fapana le liphetoho tse bonolo tsa ho se tsotelle. Ho feta moo, liphapang tsena tsa motho ka mong le tsa kholo li ka thusa ho hlalosa ts'oaetso ho batho ba bang ho ipehang kotsing e amanang le ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi, mme qetellong, bokhoba.

Eya ho:

fihlela qeto e

Lithuto tsa ho nahana ka batho li bonts'a liphetoho tsa sebopeho le tšebetso ho li-corticosubcortical circry (bakeng sa ho hlahlojoa, (Casey, Tottenham, et al., 2005; Giedd, et al., 1999; Giedd, et al., 1996; Jernigan, et al., 1991; Sowell, et al., 1999)) tse tšoanang li eketseha taolong ea kelello le ho itaola (Casey, Mokoetlisi, et al., 1997; Luna & Sweeney, 2004; Luna, et al., 2001; Rubia, et al., 2000; Steinberg, 2004; Steinberg, et al., 2008). Liphetoho tsena li bonts'a phetoho ea ts'ebetsong ea libaka tsa pele ho tloha ho ferekanya ho isa ho tsepamisang maikutlo ho feta nako (Brown, et al., 2005; Bunge, et al., 2002; Casey, Mokoetlisi, et al., 1997; Durston le Casey, 2006; Mose, et al., 2002) le ho hloa libaka tse phahameng tsa maemo a tlase lilemong tsa bocha.Casey, Thomas, et al., 2002; Durston le Casey, 2006; Luna, et al., 2001). Leha lithuto tsa neuroimaging li ke ke tsa supa hantle mokhoa oa liphetoho tse joalo tsa ntlafatso, liphetoho tsena molemong oa sebopeho le sebopeho li ka bonts'a ntlafatso kahare, le ntlafatso ea, likhakanyo tsa ho tsoa le ho tsoa likarolong tsena tsa boko nakong ea kholo ea maemo a ho hlophisa hantle ha tsamaisoHare, et al., 2008; Liston, et al., 2006).

Ha ho kopantsoe hammoho, liphumano tse hlophisitsoeng mona li bonts'a hore na menyetla e mengata ea ho beha bonyenyane lilemong tsa bocha e amana le likarolo tse fapaneng tsa nts'etsopele ea libaka tse laoloang ka matla le taolo ea cortical. Leha ho le joalo, sena ha se bolele hore bacha ha ba khone ho etsa liqeto tse bohlale. Ho fapana le moo, maemong a ahlotsoeng ka ho teba maikutlong, tsamaiso e holofetseng ea litho tsa maoto e ka holisa tsamaiso ea pele pele ho liketso tse tataisang.

Leha bocha bo khethollotsoe e le nako e khetholloang ka ho batla moputso le ho nka boits'oaro ba ho ipeha kotsing (Gardner le Steinberg, 2005; Spear, 2000) phapang pakeng tsa likarabo tsa neural ho fana ka moputso, ho rera bacha ba bang ho beha likotsi tse ngata ho feta tse ling, ho ba beha kotsing e kholo ea litlamorao tse mpe joalo ka ho lemalla, ho sebelisa lithethefatsi hampe le ho shoa. Liphumano tsena li fana ka motheo oa bohlokoa ka ho kopanya liphumano tse fapaneng tse amanang le ho se ts'oaroe le ho nka kotsi ea ho kena bohlankaneng le ho utloisisa liphapang tsa batho ka bomong le matšoao a ntlafatso bakeng sa likhetho tsa likhetho tse sa lebelloang tse lebisang liphellong tse mpe.

Eya ho:

lumela hore baa fokola

Mosebetsi ona o tšehelitsoe ke karolo e 'ngoe ea NIDA R01 DA018879, NIMH P50 MH62196, NSF 06-509, le NSF 0720932 ho BJC, lelapa la Mortimer D. Sackler, letlole la Dewitt-Wallace, le ke Weill Cornell Medical College Citigroup Biom le Ho Ts'oara Core.

Eya ho:

References

  • Benthin A, Slovic P, Severson H. Phuputso ea kelello ea thuto ea mahlale a lilemong tsa bocha. Sengoliloeng sa bocha. 1993;16: 153-168. [E fetotsoe]
  • Bjork JM, Knutson B, Fong GW, Caggiano DM, Bennett SM, Hommer DW. Ts'usumetso e matlafatsang ea kelello ho bacha lilemong tsa bocha: ho tšoana le liphapang tse tsoang ho batho ba baholo. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2004;24(8): 1793-1802. [E fetotsoe]
  • Bjork JM, Smith AR, Chen G, Hommer DW. Bacha, batho ba baholo le meputso: ho bapisa ho khothaletsa batho ba sebelisang li-neurocircuitry ba sebelisang fMRI. PLoS One. 2010;5(7): e11440. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Bjorklund DF. Karolo ea tsebo ea mohopolo kholisong ea tlhophiso mohopolong oa bana. Ka: Brainerd CJ, Pressley M, bahlophisi. Merero ea mantlha kholisong ea memori: Tsoelo-pele patlisisong ea kholo ea kelello. Springer-Verlag; New York: 1985. maq. 103-142.
  • Bjorklund DF. Lilemo li fetoha joang botlaaseng ba tsebo li kenya letsoho kholisong ea mohopolo oa bana: Tlhahlobo e tolokileng. Tlhahlobo ea ntlafatso. 1987;7: 993-130.
  • Blum K, Braverman ER, Holder JM, Lubar JF, Monastra VJ, Miller D, et al. Sesupo sa khaello ea moputso: mohlala oa biogenetic bakeng sa tlhahlobo le kalafo ea boits'oaro bo sa susumetseng, bo tlatsetsang le bo qobellang. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2000;32(Suppl, i-iv): 1-112.
  • Bourgeois JP, Goldman-Rakic ​​PS, Rakic ​​P. Synaptogeneis setulong se ka pele ho litšoene tsa rhesus. Cerebral Cortex. 1994;4: 78-96. [E fetotsoe]
  • Brainerd CJ, Reyna VF. Boipuso ba memori le ho kena-kenana le memori ho nts'etsopele ea kelello. Tlhahlobo ea kelello. 1993;100: 42-67. [E fetotsoe]
  • Brenhouse HC, Sonntag KC, Andersen SL. Polelo ea nakoana ea D1 ea dopamine receptor ho li-neuron tsa preortal cortex: kamano e matlafatsang molemong oa litšusumetso tsa litakatso tsa lithethefatsi bohlabung. J Neurosci. 2008;28(10): 2375-2382. [E fetotsoe]
  • BB e sootho. Likamano tsa bacha le lithaka. Ka: Lerner RM, Steinberg LD, bahlophisi. Handbook of psychology ea bongoana. John Wiley & Bara, Inc; Hoboken: 2004. maq. 363–394.
  • Brown TT, Lugar HM, Coalson RS, Miezin FM, Petersen SE, Schlaggar BL. Liphetoho tsa nts'etsopele mokhatlong o sebetsang oa likatse tsa batho bakeng sa ho hlahisa mantsoe. Cerebral Cortex. 2005;15: 275-290. [E fetotsoe]
  • Bunge SA, Dudukovic NM, Thomason ME, Vaidya CJ, Gabrieli JD. Tlatsetso ea ka pele ea lobe ea pele ho taolo ea kelello ho bana: bopaki bo tsoang ho fMRI. Neuron. 2002;33(2): 301-311. [E fetotsoe]
  • Case R. Ho netefatsoa ha bokhoni ba kelello ba neo-Piagetian. Tlaleho ea Psychology ea Ngoana. 1972;14: 287-302.
  • Casey BJ, Amso D, Davidson MC. Ho ithuta ka ho ithuta le nts'etsopele ka neuroimaging. Ka: Johnsons M, Munakata Y, bahlophisi. Tlhokomeliso le Ts'ebetso XXI: Mekhoa ea Phetoho ho Brain le Kutlwisiso ea kelello. MIT; Cambridge, MA: 2006.
  • Casey BJ, Castellanos FX, Giedd JN, Marsh WL, Hamburger SD, Schubert AB, et al. Tšusumetso ea li-potrystriatal potryry tse nepahetseng ka karabelo ea thibelo le tlhokeho ea bofokoli / khatello ea kelello. J Am Acad Ngoana Litaba tsa kelello. 1997;36(3): 374-383. [E fetotsoe]
  • Casey BJ, Durston S. Ho tloha boits'oaro ho isa bokong le bokong: re ithutile eng lithutong tse sebetsang tsa ho nahana ka tšilafalo ea kelello? Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(6): 957-960. [E fetotsoe]
  • Casey BJ, Epstein JN, Buhle J, Liston C, Davidson MC, Tonev ST, et al. Khokahano ea Frontostriatal le karolo ea eona taolong ea kelello ho li-dyads tsa motsoali le ngoana tse nang le ADHD. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(11): 1729-1736. [E fetotsoe]
  • Casey BJ, Galvan A, Hare TA. Liphetoho mokhatlong o sebetsang oa likerese nakong ea kholo ea kelello. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2005;15(2): 239-244. [E fetotsoe]
  • Casey BJ, Getz S, Galvan A. Boko ba bongoana. Dev Rev. 2008;28(1): 62-77. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Casey BJ, Giedd JN, Thomas KM. Bokaholimo le tšebetsong bokong ba kelello le kamano ea eona le kholiseho ea kelello. Biol Psychol. 2000;54(1-3): 241-257. [E fetotsoe]
  • Casey BJ, Thomas KM, Davidson MC, Kunz K, Franzen PL. Ho khetholla mosebetsi oa striatal le hippocampal ka mokhoa o tsoetseng pele ka mosebetsi oa ho tsamaisana le tšusumetso. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2002;22(19): 8647-8652. [E fetotsoe]
  • Casey BJ, Thomas KM, Welsh TF, Badgaiyan RD, Eccard CH, Jennings JR, et al. Ho arohana ha karohano ea karabo, khetho e lebisang tlhokomelo, le tebello e nang le ts'ebetso ea matla a matla a matla a khoheli. Ts'ebetso ea Setsi sa Naha sa Mahlale sa United States of America. 2000;97(15): 8728-8733. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Casey BJ, Tottenham N, Fossella J. Clinical, imaging, lesion, le mekhoa ea liphatsa tsa lefutso ho latela mohlala oa taolo ea kelello. Dev Psychobiol. 2002;40(3): 237-254. [E fetotsoe]
  • Casey BJ, Tottenham N, Liston C, Durston S. Ho etsa ts'ebetso bokong: Re ithutile eng ka nts'etsopele ea kelello? Mekhoa ea Mahlale a Kelello. 2005;9(3): 104-110.
  • Casey BJ, Mokoetlisi RJ, Orendi JL, Schubert AB, Nystrom LE, Giedd JN, et al. Phuputso e sebetsang ea MRI ea ts'ebetso ea ts'ebetso ea pele ho ts'ebetso nakong ea ts'ebetso ea mosebetsi o sa tsamaee. Tlaleho ea Curitive Neuroscience. 1997;9: 835-847.
  • Cauffman E, Shulman EP, Steinberg L, Claus E, Banich MT, Graham S, et al. Phapang ea lilemo ho ho nka liqeto tse ananeloang joalo ka ha e bonts'oa ke ts'ebetso ho Iowa Giking Task. Psychol ea Dev. 2010;46(1): 193-207. [E fetotsoe]
  • Chassin L, Hussong A, Barrera M, Jr., Molina BSG, Trim R, Ts'ebeliso ea Ritter J. Adolescent Substance. Ka: Lerner RM, Steinberg LD, bahlophisi. Handbook of psychology ea bongoana. John Wiley & Bara, Inc; Hoboken: 2004. maq. 665–696.
  • Collins AW, Laursen B. Kamano ea Batsoali le Bacha le Litšusumetso. Ka: Lerner RM, Steinberg LD, bahlophisi. Handbook of psychology ea bongoana. John Wiley & Bara, Inc; Hoboken: 2004. maq. 331–362.
  • Crone EA, Donohue SE, Honomichl R, Wendelken C, Bunge SA. Libaka tsa boko li sebelisa tšebeliso ea maemo a bonolo nakong ea kholo. J Neurosci. 2006;26(43): 11239-11247. [E fetotsoe]
  • Crone EA, van der Molen MW. Nts'etsopele ea ho etsa liqeto ho bana ba lilemong tsa sekolo le bacha: bopaki bo tsoang tekanyo ea pelo le tlhahlobo ea boitšoaro ba letlalo. Ngoana oa bana. 2007;78(4): 1288-1301. [E fetotsoe]
  • Dahl R. Ho nts'etsopele ea boko ba bongoaneng: Nako ea bofokoli le menyetla. Liphatlalatso tsa New York Academy of Science. 2004;1021: 1-22. [E fetotsoe]
  • Dempster FN. Ho hanela pherekano: Liphetoho tsa nts'etsopele mochineng oa mantlha oa ts'ebetso. Ka: Howe ML, Pasnak R, bahlophisi. Mehopolo e hlahlamang ea kholo ea kelello. Moq. 1. Springer; New York: 1993. maq. 3-27.
  • Diamond A. Nts'etsopele ea bokhoni ba ho sebelisa hopola ho etsa liketso, joalo ka ha ho bontšoa ke ts'ebetso ea masea ho AB. Kholiso ea bana. 1985;56: 868-883. [E fetotsoe]
  • Durston S, Casey BJ. Phetoho ho tloha ts'ebetsong ho ea ho ts'ebetso ea kortical e tsepameng le nts'etsopele: karabo ea bangoli. Dev Sci. 2006;9(1): 18-20. [E fetotsoe]
  • Durston S, Davidson MC, Thomas KM, Worden MS, Tottenham N, Martinez A, et al. Pholoso ea litla-morao tsa ntoa le tlholisanong ea karabo e sebelisang fMRI e potlakileng e amanang le liteko. Nako ea mokokotlo. 2003;20(4): 2135-2141. [E fetotsoe]
  • Durston S, Davidson MC, Tottenham N, Galvan A, Spicer J, Fossella JA, et al. Fetoha ho tloha ferekanya ho isa tšebetsong tšebetso ea cortical ka kholo. Dev Sci. 2006;9(1): 1-8. [E fetotsoe]
  • Durston S, Thomas KM, Worden MS, Yang Y, Casey BJ. Kameho ea moelelo oa pele ho thibelo: thuto e amanang le fMRI e amanang le ketsahalo. Nako ea mokokotlo. 2002;16(2): 449-453. [E fetotsoe]
  • Eaton LK, Kann L, Kinchen S, Shanklin S, Ross J, Hawkins J, le al. Tlhokomelo ea Boitšoaro ba Bacha ba Bacha - United States, 2007, kakaretso ea leihlo. Mathata le ho shoa ha beke le beke. 2008;57(SS04): 1-131. [E fetotsoe]
  • Eigsti IM, Zayas V, Mischel W, Shoda Y, Ayduk O, Dadlani MB, et al. Ho bolela esale pele taolo ea kelello ho tloha sekolong sa pele ho ea bohlankaneng le ho ba motho e moholo ea lilemong. Psychol Sci. 2006;17(6): 478-484. [E fetotsoe]
  • Epstein JN, Casey BJ, Tonev ST, Davidson MC, Reiss AL, Garrett A, et al. ADHD- le ts'ebetso e amanang le ts'ebetso ea ts'ebetso ea boko e amanang le meriana ho li-dyad tsa ngoana le ngoana tse anngoeng ka kotloloho ke eona. J Ngaka Psychol Psychiatry. 2007;48(9): 899-913. [E fetotsoe]
  • Ernst M, Nelson EE, Jazbec S, McClure EB, Monk CS, Leibenluft E, et al. Amygdala le li-nucleus li bokellana ka likarabelo tsa ho fumana le ho siea melemo ho batho ba baholo le ba lilemong tsa bocha. Nako ea mokokotlo. 2005;25(4): 1279-1291. [E fetotsoe]
  • Ernst M, Pine DS, mohlala oa Hardin M. Triadic oa boitšoaro bo susumetsoang bongoaneng. Medy Psychol. 2006;36(3): 299-312. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Ernst M, Romeo RD, Andersen SL. Neurobiology ea nts'etsopele ea boits'oaro bo susumetsang bocheng: fensetere ho ea mehlala ea mekhoa ea neural. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2009;93(3): 199-211. [E fetotsoe]
  • Feld BC. Mofuta o potlakileng oa lefu: Litlamorao tsa Roper v. Simmons bakeng sa bana ba banyenyane ba ahloletsoeng ho phela ntle le parol. Tlaleho ea Molao oa Notre Dame, Melao ea Boitšoaro le Leano la Sechaba. 2008;22: 9-65.
  • Figner B, Mackinlay RJ, Wilkening F, Weber EU. Lits'ebetso tse amehang le tse entsoeng ka boomo ka khetho e kotsi: phapang ea lilemo tsa ho ipeha kotsing ea ho ba le Karolo ea Mosebetsi oa Karata ea Colombia. J Exp Psychol Ithute Mem Cogn. 2009;35(3): 709-730. [E fetotsoe]
  • Flavell JH, Beach DR, Chinksy JM. Ho itlhakisa ka ho pheta-pheta mosebetsing oa ho hopola e le ts'ebetso ea lilemo. Kholiso ea bana. 1966;37: 283-299. [E fetotsoe]
  • Forbes EE, Dahl RE. Nts'etsopele ea boitšoaro le boitšoaro: ts'ebetso ea li-horinse ea litloaelo tsa maemo a bophelo le tse susumetsang. Cogn ea boko. 2010;72(1): 66-72. [E fetotsoe]
  • Galvan A, Hare T, Voss H, Glover G, Casey BJ. Ho nka likotsi le boko ba bongoana: ke mang ea kotsing? Dev Sci. 2007;10(2): F8-F14. [E fetotsoe]
  • Galvan A, Hare TA, Davidson M, Spicer J, Glover G, Casey BJ. Karolo ea ho potoloha ha masea kahare ho thuto e thehiloeng ho moputso ho batho. J Neurosci. 2005;25(38): 8650-8656. [E fetotsoe]
  • Galvan A, Hare TA, Parra CE, Penn J, Voss H, Glover G, et al. Pejana nts'etsopele ea maqhubu a amanang le orbitofrontal cortex e ka beha boitšoaro bo ka behang kotsing ho batjha. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2006;26(25): 6885-6892. [E fetotsoe]
  • Ts'usumetso ea Gardner M, Steinberg L. Tšusumetso ea lithaka mabapi le ho beha likotsi, ho khetha likotsi, le ho etsa liqeto tse kotsi lilemong tsa bocha le ho ba motho e moholo: thuto ea liteko. Psychol ea Dev. 2005;41(4): 625-635. [E fetotsoe]
  • Geier CF, Luna B. Phallo ea ts'ebetso ea ts'usumetso le taolo ea kelello. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2009;93(3): 212-221. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Geier CF, Terwilliger R, Teslovich T, Velanova K, Luna B. Matšoao a Ts'ebetso ea Meputso le Tšusumetso ea Ts'ebetso ea Taolo ea Ts'ireletso ho Adolescence. Cereb Cortex. 2009
  • Giedd JN. Bokaholimo ba sebopeho sa kelello sa bongoana. Ann NY Hannah Sci. 2004;1021: 77-85. [E fetotsoe]
  • Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, Castellanos FX, Liu H, Zijdenbos A, et al. Kholiso ea boko nakong ea bongoana le ea bocha: thuto ea MRI e telele. Nat Neurosci. 1999;2(10): 861-863. [E fetotsoe]
  • Giedd JN, Snell JW, Lange N, Rajapakse JC, Casey BJ, Kaysen D, et al. Khopolo ea maqhubu a matla a kelello a kholo ea kholo ea kholo ea motho: lilemo tsa 4-18. Cerebral Cortex. 1996;6: 551-560. [E fetotsoe]
  • Gogtay N, Giedd JN, Lusk L, Hayashi KM, Greenstein D, Vaituzis AC, et al. 'Mapa o matla oa ntlafatso ea motho nakong ea bongoana ho fihlela e le motho e moholo. Ts'ebetso ea National Academy of Science, USA. 2004;101(21): 8174-8179.
  • Graber JA, Brooks-Gunn J. Puberty. Ka: Blechman EA, Brownell KD, bahlophisi. Moriana oa basali oa Boitšoaro: Buka e akaretsang. Guilford Press; New York, NY: 1998. maq. 51-58.
  • Hare TA, Tottenham N, Galvan A, Voss HU, Glover GH, Casey BJ. Likarolo tsa tlhaho tsa ho fetoha hape hoa maikutlo le taolo lilemong tsa bocha nakong ea mosebetsi oa ho nkeha maikutlo. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(10): 927-934. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Harnishfeger KK, Bjorklund DF. Thegengeny of inhibition mechanism: Mokhoa o mocha oa ntlafatso ea kelello. Ka: Howe ML, Pasnek R, bahlophisi. Mehopolo e hlahlamang ea kholo ea kelello. Moq. 1. Springer-Verlag; New York: 1993.
  • Hikosaka K, Watanabe M. Ho lieha hoa lits'ebetso tsa orbital le tsa morao-rao tsa litšoelesa tse fapaneng ka meputso e fapaneng. Cereb Cortex. 2000;10(3): 263-271. [E fetotsoe]
  • Huttenlocher PR. Synaptic density in frontal cortex - liphetoho tsa kholo le litlamorao tsa botsofali. Patlisiso ea Brain. 1979;163: 195-205. [E fetotsoe]
  • Hyman SE, Malenka RC. Tlatsetso le boko: neurobiology ea ho qobella le ho phehella ha eona. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001;2(10): 695-703. [E fetotsoe]
  • Jernigan TL, Zisook S, Heaton RK, Moranville JT, Hesselink JR, Braff DL. Magnetic resonance imaging disngencyities in lenticular nuclei and cerebral cortex in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991;48(10): 881-890. [E fetotsoe]
  • Keating DP, Bobbitt BL. Phapang pakeng tsa motho ka mong le nts'etsopele ea likarolo tsa ts'ebetso ea kelello ea bokhoni ba kelello. Kholiso ea bana. 1978;49: 155-167.
  • Kelley AE, Schochet T, Landry CF. Ho nka kotsi le ho batla bongoana lilemong tsa bocha: kenyelletso ea karolo ea I. Ann NY Hannah Sci. 2004;1021: 27-32. [E fetotsoe]
  • Klingberg T, Forssberg H, Westerberg H. Ho eketsa tšebetso ea boko kahare le kahare ho poraetale ho nts'etsopele ea bokhoni ba memori bo sebetsang ba bongoana nakong ea bongoana. J Cogn Neurosci. 2002;14(1): 1-10. [E fetotsoe]
  • Knutson B, Adams CM, Fong GW, Hommer D. Tabatabelo ea ho eketsa moputso oa chelete ka boikhethelo ba hira li-nucleus accumbens. J Neurosci. 2001;21(16): RC159. [E fetotsoe]
  • Kuhnen CM, Knutson B. Motheo oa neural oa ho ipeha kotsing ea lichelete. Neuron. 2005;47(5): 763-770. [E fetotsoe]
  • Laviola G, Adriani W, Terranova ML, Gerra G. Psychobiological lintlha tse beha kotsing ea ho ba kotsing ea li-psychostimulants ho bacha ba batho le mefuta ea liphoofolo. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 1999;23(7): 993-1010. [E fetotsoe]
  • Laviola G, Macri S, Morley-Fletcher S, Adriani W. Boits'oaro bo nkang kotsi ho litoeba tsa bocha: litekanyetso tsa psychobiological le tšusumetso ea pele ea epigenetic. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2003;27(1-2): 19-31. [E fetotsoe]
  • Levita L, Hare TA, Voss HU, Glover G, Ballon DJ, Casey BJ. Karolo e kopanyang ea li-nucleus e bokellanang. Nako ea mokokotlo. 2009;44(3): 1178-1187. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Liston C, Watts R, Tottenham N, Davidson MC, Niogi S, Ulug AM, et al. Frontostriatal Microstform e hlophisa ho hira ea taolo e sebetsang hantle. Cerebral Cortex. 2006;16(4): 553-560. [E fetotsoe]
  • Luna B, Sweeney JA. Ho hlaha ha ts'ebetso ea ts'ebetso ea boko bo kopanetsoeng: Lithuto tsa FMRI tsa nts'etsopele ea thibelo ea karabelo. Ann NY Hannah Sci. 2004;1021: 296-309. [E fetotsoe]
  • Luna B, Thulborn KR, Munoz DP, Merriam EP, Garver KE, Minshew NJ, et al. Mofuta oa tšebetso ea boko e abeloeng ka bongata o tšehetsa tsoelo-pele ea kelello. Nako ea mokokotlo. 2001;13(5): 786-793. [E fetotsoe]
  • Martin CA, Logan TK, Portis C, Leukefeld CG, Lynam D, Staton M, et al. Kopano ea testosterone le ts'ebeliso ea nikotini ho basali ba bacha lilemong. Ho lemalla Behav. 2001;26(2): 279-283. [E fetotsoe]
  • Matthews SC, Simmons AN, Lane SD, Paulus MP. Ts'ebetso e ikhethileng ea li-nucleus tsa li-nucleus nakong ea ho etsa liqeto tse kotsi. Neuroreport. 2004;15(13): 2123-2127. [E fetotsoe]
  • May JC, Delgado MR, Dahl RE, Stenger VA, Ryan ND, Fiez JA, et al. Ketsahalo e amanang le ketsahalo ea matla a amanang le bokhabane ea ketsahalo ea ho potoloha ha boko ho amanang le moputso ho bana le lilemong tsa bocha. Likokoana-hloko tsa likokoana-hloko. 2004;55(4): 359-366. [E fetotsoe]
  • McClure SM, Laibson DI, Loewenstein G, Cohen JD. Litsamaiso tse ikhethileng tsa neural li nka moputso oa kapele le o liehang oa moputso. Saense. 2004;306(5695): 503-507. [E fetotsoe]
  • Miller EK, Cohen JD. Khopolo e kopanyang ea ts'ebetso ea cortex ea pele. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2001;24: 167-202. [E fetotsoe]
  • Mischel W, Shoda Y, Rodriguez MI. Ho lieha ho khotsofala ho bana. Saense. 1989;244(4907): 933-938. [E fetotsoe]
  • Monk CS, McClure EB, Nelson EE, Zarahn E, RM, Leibenluff E, et al. Ho se sireletsehe ha bongoaneng maikutlong a amanang le boloi ho amanang le maikutlo ho sefahleho sa maikutlo. Nako ea mokokotlo. 2003;20: 420-428. [E fetotsoe]
  • Montague PR, Berns GS. Moruo oa Neural le likarolo tsa tlhaho tsa boleng. Neuron. 2002;36(2): 265-284. [E fetotsoe]
  • Moses P, Roe K, Buxton RB, Wong EC, Frank LR, Stiles J. Functional MRI ea ts'ebetso ea lefats'e le ea lehae ho bana. Nako ea mokokotlo. 2002;16(2): 415-424. [E fetotsoe]
  • Munakata Y, Jerys BE. Ka kakaretso hona joale: ha ho arohana pakeng tsa tsebo le ketso ho nyamela. Psychol Sci. 2001;12(4): 335-337. [E fetotsoe]
  • Nagy Z, Westerberg H, Klingberg T. Phallo ea litaba tse tšoeu e amana le nts'etsopele ea mesebetsi ea kelello nakong ea bongoana. J Cogn Neurosci. 2004;16(7): 1227-1233. [E fetotsoe]
  • Nelson EE, Leibenluft E, McClure EB, Pine DS. Tloaelo ea bocha ea bophelo ba bocha: maikutlo a neuroscience mabapi le ts'ebetso le kamano ea eona le psychopathology. Medy Psychol. 2005;35(2): 163-174. [E fetotsoe]
  • O'Doherty JP. Lipontšo tsa moputso le thuto e amanang le moputso bokong ba motho: leseli le tsoang ho neuroimaging. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2004;14(6): 769-776. [E fetotsoe]
  • O'Doherty JP, Kringelbach ML, Rolls ET, Hornak J, Andrews C. Abstract moputso le boemeli ba kotlo ka koteng ea motho ea orbitofrontal. Nat Neurosci. 2001;4(1): 95-102. [E fetotsoe]
  • Pascual-Leone JA. Mohlala oa lipalo bakeng sa phetoho mokhahlelong oa ntlafatso oa Piaget. Acta Psychologica. 1970;32: 301-345.
  • Pecina S, Cagniard B, Berridge KC, Aldridge JW, Zhuang X. Hyperdopaminergic mutice litoeba tse phahameng tsa "ho batla" empa li sa "rate" bakeng sa meputso e monate. J Neurosci. 2003;23(28): 9395-9402. [E fetotsoe]
  • Nts'etsopele ea Rakic ​​P. ea Synaptic ea "cortex" ea mokokotlo: litlamorao tsa ho ithuta, ho hopola le bokuli ba kelello. Prog. Resin ea Boko. 1994;102: 227-243. [E fetotsoe]
  • Romeo RD. Ho kena lilemong tsa bocha: nako ea litlamorao tsa tšebetso le tšebetso ea lihormone tsa steroid ho nts'etsopele ea neurobehavioural. J Neuroendocrinol. 2003;15(12): 1185-1192. [E fetotsoe]
  • Rosenberg DR, Lewis DA. Kamora nako e telele ea ho pepesetsoa hoa dopaminergic ea monkey pele le likoloi tsa makoloi: tlhahlobo ea tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemical. J Comp Neurol. 1995;358(3): 383-400. [E fetotsoe]
  • Rubia K, Overmeyer S, Taylor E, Brammer M, Williams SC, Simmons A, et al. Ts'ebetso ea pele-pele e amanang le lilemo: li-trailer tsa 'mapa tsa neurodevelopmental le fMRI. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2000;24(1): 13-19. [E fetotsoe]
  • Schlaggar BL, brown TT, Lugar HM, Visscher KM, Miezin FM, Petersen SE. Phapang e sebetsang ea neuroanatomical lipakeng tsa batho ba baholo le bana ba lilemo tse kenang sekolo ts'ebetsong ea mantsoe a le mong. Saense. 2002;296(5572): 1476-1479. [E fetotsoe]
  • Likhopolo tsa Schultz W. likhopolo tsa boitšoaro bo mabapi le moputso. Annu Rev Psychol. 2006;57: 87-115. [E fetotsoe]
  • Scott ES. Kahlolo le Ho Bea Mabaka ho Qeto ea Bacha. Tlhahlobo ea Molao oa Villanova 1992;37: 1607-1669. [E fetotsoe]
  • Somerville LH, Hare TA, Casey BJ. Frontostriatal maturity e bolela esale pele taolo ea taolo ea kelello ho litakatsong tsa bocha. Tlaleho ea Curitive Neuroscience. ka khatiso.
  • Somerville LH, Jones RM, Casey BJ. Nako ea phetoho: Litloaelo tsa boits'oaro le boits'oaro ba tlhaho ea bongoana bakeng sa takatso ea bocha le litakatso tse fapaneng tsa tikoloho. Cogn ea boko. 2010;72(1): 124-133. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Sowell ER, Peterson BS, Thompson PM, Welcome SE, Henkenius AL, Toga AW. 'Mapa oa phetoho ea kotloloho bophelong ba motho. Nat Neurosci. 2003;6(3): 309-315. [E fetotsoe]
  • Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Holmes CJ, Jernigan TL, Toga AW. Bophelong ba vivo bakeng sa ho holofala ha bongoana ba bongoaneng libakeng tsa pele le tsa bootsoa. Nat Neurosci. 1999;2(10): 859-861. [E fetotsoe]
  • Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Toga AW. 'Mapa oa liphetoho mokhoabong oa batho ho pholletsa le nako ea bophelo. Neuroscientist. 2004;10(4): 372-392. [E fetotsoe]
  • Spear LP. Boko ba bongoana le liponahatso tse amanang le lilemo tsa bocha. Litsebi tsa mahlale le litlhahlobo tsa boitšoaro. 2000;24(4): 417-463. [E fetotsoe]
  • Spear LP. Neuroscience ea Boitšoaro ba Bohlale. WW Norton & Khampani; New York: 2009.
  • Steinberg L. Ho beha kotsing ea ho ba mocha: ke liphetoho life, 'me hobane'ng? Ann NY Hannah Sci. 2004;1021: 51-58. [E fetotsoe]
  • Steinberg L. Ho ba le pono e ntle ka ho teba mabapi le ho beha bacha kotsing. Tlhahlobo ea ntlafatso. 2008;28: 78-106. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Steinberg L, Albert D, Cauffman E, Banich M, Graham S, Woolard J. Age dipharologano mo maikutlong a go senka maikutlo le go tlhotlheletsega jaaka a supilwe ke boitshwaro le go itirela pego: bosupi jwa sekao sa dikausu tse di ikopileng. Psychol ea Dev. 2008;44(6): 1764-1778. [E fetotsoe]
  • Steinberg L, Graham S, O'Brien L, Woolard J, Cauffman E, Banich M. Liphapang tsa lilemo mabapi le boits'oaro le bokamoso ba litheolelo. Ngoana oa bana. 2009;80(1): 28-44. [E fetotsoe]
  • Tamm L, Menon V, Reiss AL. Nako ea tšebetso ea boko e amanang le karabo ea karabelo. J Am Acad Ngoana Litaba tsa kelello. 2002;41(10): 1231-1238. [E fetotsoe]
  • Thomas KM, Hunt RH, Vizueta N, Sommer T, Durston S, Yang Y, et al. Bopaki ba phapang ea kholo lithutong tse latellanang tse hlakileng: thuto ea fMRI ea bana le batho ba baholo. J Cogn Neurosci. 2004;16(8): 1339-1351. [E fetotsoe]
  • Turkeltaub PE, Gareau L, Lipalesa DL, Zeffiro TA, Edene GF. Nts'etsopele ea mekhoa ea neural ea ho bala. Nat Neurosci. 2003;6(7): 767-773. [E fetotsoe]
  • Van Leijenhorst L, Moor BG, Op de Macks ZA, Rombouts SA, Westenberg PM, Crone EA. Ho etsa liqeto tse kotsi bophelong ba lilemong tsa bocha: Kholiso e ntle ea tikoloho ea meputso le taolo. Nako ea mokokotlo. 2010
  • Van Leijenhorst L, Zanolie K, Van Meel CS, Westenberg PM, Rombouts SA, Crone EA. Ke eng e susumetsang mocha? Libaka tsa methapo e hohelang kutloelo-bohloko ea moputso nakong ea bocha. Cereb Cortex. 2010;20(1): 61-69. [E fetotsoe]
  • Volkow ND, Li TK. Bokhoba ba lithethefatsi: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2004;5(12): 963-970. [E fetotsoe]
  • Windle M, Spear LP, Fuligni AJ, Angold A, Brown JD, Pine D, et al. Phetoho lipakeng tsa joala bo tlase le ho nooa ha mathata: lits'ebetso tsa nts'etsopele le methati lipakeng tsa 10 le 15 ea lilemo. Lingaka. 2008;121: S273-S289. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  • Zald DH, Boileau I, El-Dearedy W, Gunn R, McGlone F, Dichter GS, et al. Phetisetso ea dopamine ka har'a striatum ea motho nakong ea mesebetsi ea moputso oa chelete. J Neurosci. 2004;24(17): 4105-4112. [E fetotsoe]