Ho ata ha lithethefatsi: bothata ba bongata kapa ba seng bakae? (2011)

Leano la ho Batla

Ho ile ha hlahlojoa lienjineri tse 'ne: PsycINFO, OVID Medline (1950 ho fihlela libeke tse 2 tsa pele tsa Mmesa 2010), PubMed le Google Scholar. Mantsoe a sebelisitsoeng ho sebelisoa mekhoeng e 11 e lemalloang e ne e le "ho tsuba koae," "ho lemalla nicotine," "bokhoba ba tahi," "ho lemalla joala," "tšebeliso e mpe ea matekoane," "tšebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi", "tšebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi," "ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi, , , ”“ Bokhoba ba webo, ”“ tšebeliso e mpe ea inthanete ” ho qobelloa, ”“ ho lemalla ho ikoetlisa ” Bonyane ho sebelisitsoe mantsoe a mabeli molemong oa boits'oaro bo bong le bo bong (mohlala, "ho lemalla thobalano" le "ho qobelloa ho etsa thobalano"), kaofela li tšela ka mantsoe a mahlano a bonts'ang ho ata ("ho ata" le "ketsahalo") kapa ketsahalo e le ngoe ("co lithethefatsi tse etsahalang khafetsa, "" mathata a kopanang "le" comorbidity "). Litlotla li ile tsa hlahlojoa pele ho lekola lingoloa tse ka bang teng, tsa lateloa ke likotoana, 'me ha kopitsoa libuka tse ngotsoeng ka letsoho. Likarolo tsa litšupiso tsa lingoliloeng tse ngotsoeng tse ngotsoeng ka letsoho li ile tsa hlahlojoa bakeng sa litšupiso tse ling tse neng li le sieo ha ho phenyekolloa. Haeba ho fumanoe lingoliloeng tse 'maloa tse amehang, ho ile ha lekoa mantsoe a mang kapa ha batloa boitšoaro bo hlephileng feela ntle le ho bo kopanya le lentsoe le atileng kapa le lemalloang. Phuputso ea pele ea 640 e ile ea phethoa (mantsoe a 32 a boitšoaro bo hlephileng ba ho batla boitšoaro × 5 ho ata / mantsoe a kopaneng × 4 lienjineri tsa lipatlisiso).

Analysis

Re thehile lethathamo la kenyelletso le mekhahlelo e ka lumellang ho bolokoa ha lithuto tse fapaneng empa hape e lumella mofuta o mong oa papiso lipatong tsohle. Taba ea mantlha, re lekile ho kenyelletsa lithuto feela tse tlalehileng boholo ba mehlala ea bonyane barupeluoa ba 500 (mohlala, joalo ka Stucki le Rihs-Middel, 2007). Ka ho etsa joalo, re tla qoba mehlala e khethang ka ho fetisisa, e bonolo. Leha ho le joalo, haeba ho ne ho e-na le lithuto tse fokolang tse fumanehang bakeng sa boitšoaro bo itseng bo lemalloang, re kenyelelitse lithuto tse thehiloeng ho data tse nang le sampole e nyane ea sengoloa. Hobane liphuputso tse fokolang tsa ketsahalo li ne li le teng, lithuto tsohle tse thehiloeng ho data tsa ketsahalo ea bokhoba ba tahi e fumanehang patlisisong li kenyelelitsoe bukeng ea tlhahlobo ena, ho sa tsotelehe boholo ba sampole. Taba ea bobeli, re lekanyelitse lilemo tsa rona tsa ho kenyelletsoa ho tloha ho 16 ho isa ho lilemo tse 65, ho nka linako tsa kholo ho tloha lilemong tsa bocha tsa mathomo qalong ea ho ba batho ba baholo ho ba batho ba baholo / ba baholo. Lihloohong tse kenyellelitseng lilemo tse pharalletseng, re lekile ho sebelisa data kahara 16- ho lilemo tsa 65. Taba ea boraro, re kenyelelitse lithuto tse atileng tse hlahlobang banna le basali, ho hlakola mehlala efe kapa efe e khethiloeng (mohlala, bakuli ba itšetlehileng ka likhemik'hale tsa bong bo le bong). Ntlha ea bone, re kenyelelitse lithuto feela tse hlalositseng tšebeliso e itseng ea tahi mme ra fana ka li-psychometric tse bontšang bots'epehi kapa bonnete (mohlala, bona Albrecht, Kirschner, & Grusser, 2007). Ho bile le lingoloa tse neng li na le tšusumetso e kholo empa li sa lumelle likhakanyo tse hlakileng tsa bongata, 'me tsena li ne li qheleloa ka thoko ho pokello (mohlala, Brenner, 1997, mabapi le bokhoba ba inthanete). Kamora nako, re lekile ho kenyelletsa lintlha feela tsa ho nka karolo haufinyane boitšoarong ba ho lemalla, haholo-holo ho nka karolo selemong se fetileng, mme ra lekola lithuto tse tlalehileng feela ho ata ha bophelo ba boitšoaro bo hlephileng (ntle le moo ho boletsoe sengoloeng).

Lintlha tse fihlelletseng litekanyetso tsa kenyelletso li bonts'itsoe ho Lethathamo 2 (n = Liphuputso tse 83). Lintlha tsena li akaretsa boits'oaro bo feteletseng e le ho "lemalla". Ka bobeli "tšebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi" le "ho itšepa" li ne li nkuoa e le "lemalla" tafoleng le lipalo tsa rona. Liphuputsong tse lekantseng "kotsi", "bothata" le "pathological" papali ea chelete, ka kakaretso ho becha feela ho ne ho nahanoa tafoleng (haeba e fanoe ebile e hlahisoa ka thoko le mekhahlelo e meng). Ntle le ha ho boletsoe ka hosele, data e ne e le ts'ebeliso ea likhoeli tse 12 tse fetileng (bona Lethathamo 2). Palo ea palo e akaretsang ea boits'oaro ba 11 ba ho lemalla lithutong tsohle e phethetsoe ka ho nahana (ka moo ho ka khonehang) sampole ea boholo bo lekantsoeng bo lekantsoeng ba litekanyetso tsohle tse fanoeng ke tlhaiso-leseling e tlalehiloeng. Likhakanyo li ne li baloa ho latela lilemo le bong.

 

Lethathamo 2

Ho ata le ho ba teng ha likamano tse 11 tsa lithuto tsa Ns bonyane 500

Ho ata le tšebelisano-'moho

Re fumane lithuto tse 83 kaofela ka boholo ba mehlala ea bonyane lithuto tse 500 (Lethathamo 2). Ho pholletsa le lithuto tsena tse 83, ba 12 ba ile ba hlahloba ho lemalla koae / bokhoba ba sakerete (2 ea tsona e shebile mofuta o mong oa ketsahalo le bonyane e 'ngoe ea boits'oaro ba 11 bo lemalloang), ba 22 ba hlahlobile tšebeliso e mpe ea joala / ts'epahalo (5 ea tsona e shebile co- ketsahalo), ba 20 ba hlahlobile ts'ebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi / ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi (3 ea tsona e shebile ketsahalo e kopaneng), 9 e hlahlobile mathata a lijo / bokhoba ba lijo (2 ea tsona e shebile ketsahalo e le ngoe), 26 e hlahlobile papali ea chelete ea ho becha (7 ea tsona e shebile ketsahalo e le 'ngoe ), Ba 16 ba ile ba lekola bokhoba ba inthanete (1 ea tsona e shebile ketsahalo e kopaneng), ba 2 ba hlahlobile bokhoba ba lerato (ha ho le e 'ngoe ea tsona e shebileng ketsahalo e le ngoe), ba 4 ba hlahlobileng bokhoba ba thobalano (1 ea tsona e shebile ketsahalo e le ngoe), 3 e hlahlobile boikoetliso Bokhoba ba tahi (ha ho le e 'ngoe ea tsona e shebileng ketsahalo e kopaneng), 3 e hlahlobile ho sebetsa ka thata (ha ho le e' ngoe ea tsona e shebileng ketsahalo e kopaneng), mme 4 e ile ea lekola bokhoba ba ho reka / ho senya / ho reka (ha ho le e 'ngoe ea tsona e shebileng ketsahalo e le ngoe). Liphetho li hlahisoa e le tšebetso ea sehlopha sa lilemo (bacha ba baholo, bocha ba lilemo tsa koleche, ebe batho ba baholo).

Matekoane le tšebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi / ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi

Phuputsong ea MTF, letsatsi le leng le le leng (matsatsi a 20 kapa ho feta matsatsing a 30 a fetileng) ho tsuba matekoane ho fapane ho tloha ho 5.4% ho ba lilemo li 18 ho isa ho 2% har'a ba lilemo li 50 (Johnston et al., 2009a, 2009b). Cohen le al. (1993) e fumane ho ata ha tlhekefetso ea matekoane har'a bana ba lilemo li 17 ho isa ho 20 ea 2.9%. Lintlha tse ling tse mabapi le tlhekefetso ea matekoane / ho itšetleha har'a mehlala ea baahi li bonts'a ho ata har'a bacha ba baholo le batho ba baholo ba ka bang 7% (Agrawal, Neale, Prescott, & Kendler, 2004; Barnes et al., 2009; Kofi le al., 2002; Holo, Degenhardt, & Patton, 2008; Kandel et al., 1997; Kilpatrick et al., 2000; MacLaren & Best, 2010; Young le al., 2002), leha ho le joalo Chen, Sheth, Elliott, le Yeager (2004) e fumane ho ata ha 13.4% har'a bacha, 'me Agrawal, Neale, Prescott, and Kendler (2004) e fumane hore ts'oaetso ea matekoane / sekhahla sa tšebeliso ea matekoane har'a banna le basali ba kolecheng ea Amerika e ne e le 18% le 7.5% ka ho latellana. Ntle le moo, Compton, Grant, Colliver, Glantz, le Stinson (2004), Grant le al. (2004), 'me Stinson, Ruan, Picering, le Grant (2006) a lekola sampole e kholo haholo mme a fumana ho ata ha 1.5% ea tlhekefetso ea matekoane / ho itšetleha har'a batho ba baholo ba Amerika ka kakaretso (lipakeng tsa 4% le 5% ho ata har'a ba lilemo li 18 ho isa ho 29), le Farrell le al. (2003) e fumane ho ata ha 1.8% naheng ea Great Britain. Kandel, Chen, Warner, Kessler, le Grant (1997) e fumane ho ata ha 0.1% har'a batho ba baholo ba Amerika (9.0% ho ata har'a ba neng ba e sebelisa selemong se fetileng).

Ho ata ha mathata a mang a seng molaong a ts'ebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi, a kenyelletsang tšebeliso ea matekoane palong ea lithuto tse ling, ho ne ho fapana lipakeng tsa 2% le 5% har'a bacha, bacha ba lilemong tsa koleche le batho ba baholo (Alexander & Schweighofer, 1989; Chen le al., 2004; Cohen et al., 1993 [1.1% hara ba lilemo li 17 ho isa ho tse 20, ho hlakile hore ha e kenye ts'ebeliso ea matekoane palong]; Cook, 1987; Grant et al., 2004; Kandel et al., 1997 [tlase, ka 0.3%; 11.6% hara basebelisi ba motheo ba selemo se fetileng]; Kilpatrick et al., 2000; Regier et al., 1990; Sussman le Ames, 2008; Young le al., 2002). Empa, Agrawal le al. (2004) e fumane sekhahla sa 9% le 19.2% ea ts'ebeliso e 'ngoe e seng molaong ea lithethefatsi (ntle le matekoane) har'a basali ba baholo le basali ba mafahla ba 2,125, ka ho latellana. Ka hlakoreng le leng, Compton, Thomas, Stinson, le Grant (2007), 'me Warner, Kessler, Hughes, Anthony le Nelson (1995), e tlalehile ts'oaetso ea batho ba baholo ba likhoeli tse 12 ea ts'ebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi / ts'ebeliso ea matekoane (matekoane le lithethefatsi tse ling tse seng molaong) tsa 2.0% le 1.8%, ka ho latellana. Kua Great Britain, bongata bona bo fumanoeng ke batho ba baholo ka kakaretso ke 2.1% (Farrell et al., 2003). Batho ba baholo ba ho qetela ba ts'epa lithethefatsi tse seng molaong likhoeling tse 12 Canada ba fumanoe ba le 1% (Gadalla le Piran, 2007). Ho ipapisitsoe le letamo lena la lithuto, re hakanya hore ts'ebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi / ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi e seng molaong ea khoeli le khoeli (matekoane le / kapa lithethefatsi tse ling) ho ata ha batho ba baholo ba United States e ka ba 12% (ts'ebeliso efe kapa efe ea lithethefatsi ke 5% ho 1% mohlala, Regier et al., 1990; Teesson et al., 2006).

Ketsahalo ea koae, joala le lithethefatsi tse seng molaong hammoho kapa mekhoa e meng e lemalloang

Liphuputso tse 'maloa (tse 4 feela tsa tsona li ne li kenyelletsa mehlala ea lithuto tse 500 kapa ho feta) li fumane ketsahalo e kopaneng ea koae, joala le mathata a mang a ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi har'a bacha le batho ba baholo United States kapa libakeng tse ling (Essau le Hutchinson, 2008; Falk et al., 2006; Ford et al., 2009; Kaufman, 1982; Miller, Khauta le Klahr, 1990; Palmer et al., 2009 [tšebeliso ea bophelo bohle]; Regier et al., 1990 [tšebeliso ea bophelo bohle]; Stinson, Ruan, Picering, & Grant, 2006; Sussman le Ames, 2008). Leha ho le joalo, ka sampole e kholo ea batho ba baholo ba Jeremane, ho ata ha likhoeli tse 12 tse fetileng ho sebelisoa ha joala / ts'ebeliso e mpe ea joala le ho ts'epa joala ho fumanoe har'a batho ba tsubang letsatsi le letsatsi (Ulrich, Hill, Rumpf, Hapke, & Meyer, 2003).

Tlhahlobisong ea Holderness, Brooks-Gunn le Warren (1994), ho bile le lithuto tse nyane tse tharo (ns = 20, 27, le 138) e bonts'itseng hore hoo e ka bang 20% ​​ea batho ba sebelisang hampe lithethefatsi le bona ba bontšitse bothata ba ho ja (bulimia kapa boits'oaro ba bulimic), leha Freimuth et al. (2008) e khothalelitse ketsahalo ena ea kopanelo e phahame ho 35%, mme Lesieur le Blume (1993) e khothalelitse hore ketsahalo e kopaneng e fapana ka lilemo mme e phahame ho batho ba baholo. Lesieur le Blume (1993) e tlalehile phuputso e 'ngoe ea makhoba a tahi a basali (n = 31) e bonts'itseng 36% e nang le matšoao a ho itlopa joala le 21% e nang le lefu la bongaka la ho ja.

Ho bile le lithuto tse hlano feela tse nang le sampole ea bonyane 500 tse ileng tsa lekola ketsahalo e kopaneng ea mekhoa e meng e 8 e lemalloang har'a ba nang le koae, joala kapa mathata a ts'ebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi, mme tsena kaofela li ne li amana le bokhoba ba papali ea chelete (Cunningham-Williams, Cottler, Compton, Spitznagel, le Ben-Abdallah, 2000 [ts'ebeliso ea bophelo bohle]; Sefora et al., 2008; Griffiths, Wardle, Orford, Sproston, le Erens, 2010; Toneatto le Brennan, 2002; Welte, Barnes, Wieczorek, Tidwell, & Parker, 2001). Har'a sampole e kholo ea batho ba baholo ho la Great Britain e tlalehileng hore e ne e le "litsubi" selemong se fetileng, 1.1% e tlalehile bothata ba papali ea chelete (Griffiths et al., 2010). Re ne re ke ke ra fumana lithuto tse ling tse amanang le ts'ebeliso ea koae. Har'a lisampole tse kholo tsa batho ba noang beke le beke kapa ho feta, le har'a bakuli ba baholo ba noang joala, 3-5% ba tlalehile bothata ba papali ea chelete (Sefora et al., 2008; Griffiths et al., 2010; Lesieur, Blume, & Zoppa, 1986; Toneatto le Brennan, 2002), leha e le sampole e emetseng ea batho ba baholo ba US, 24% ea batho ba itšetlehileng ka joala le bona ba tlalehile bothata ba papali ea chelete (Welte et al., 2001). Mohlala o bonolo oa batho ba ts'ebeliso e mpe ea bakuli ba lilemo li 97 ho isa ho 13 ba sebelisang kharebe (tšebeliso e mpe ea joala kapa matekoane / ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi) ke 18% feela (n = 1) e fihletse mekhoa ea ho lemalla papali ea chelete (Kaminer, Burleson, & Jadamec, 2002). Har'a sampole ea batho ba sebelisang hampe ba 990 (ho tloha ho 28% ba ts'epahalla ho robala, ho isa ho 77% e le ba itšetlehileng ka tse susumetsang), 11% e tlalehile hape e le papali ea chelete ea papali ea chelete (Cunningham-Williams et al., 2000 [tshebediso ya bophelo bohle], mme diphuputso tse ding tsa boholo bo bonyenyane le tsona di bontshitse hore 5-25% ya batho ba sebedisang dithethefatsi tse seng molaong le bona ba lemaletse ho becha (Freimuth et al., 2008; Lesieur le Blume, 1993; Lesieur, Blume, & Zoppa, 1986; Petry, 2007; Spunt, Dupont, Lesieur, Liberty, & Hunt, 1998; Steinberg, Kosten, le Rounsaville, 1992; Toneatto le Brennan, 2002).

Freimuth et al. (2008) hakanngoa hore hoo e ka bang karolo ea boraro ea batho ba sebelisang hampe lithethefatsi le bona ba bontša tlatsetso ea thobalano; leha ho le joalo, tlaleho eo e le 'ngoe ke ea likhopolo-taba. Griffin-Shelley (1995) ho nahanoa hore ke 10% feela ea ba nang le ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi le bona ba nang le bothata ba lerato kapa bokhoba ba thobalano. Ha re a ka ra fumana lithuto tse ling tse bontšang ho kopana ha lithethefatsi tse ling har'a batho ba tsubang sakerete, ba sebelisang joala hampe kapa ba sebelisang hampe lithethefatsi.

Ho hakanya ho ata ha sakerete, joala le ts'ebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi (matekoane kapa lithethefatsi tse ling) lithethefatsi ho batho ba baholo ba US ho 15%, 10%, le 5%, ka ho latellana, haeba motho a ka kenella ka 50% har'a tse peli ho tse tharo ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi mathata, joale motho a ka akaretsa halofo ea e 'ngoe le e' ngoe ea mekhoa ena e lemalloang 'me a fumana hore 15% ea batho ba baholo ba United States ba lemaletse lisakerete, joala kapa lithethefatsi tse ling, ho laola ho kopana (30% ka kakaretso haeba ho ne ho se ho kopana ). Ka nakoana, re hakanya hore ho na le 50% e kenang har'a koae, joala kapa lithethefatsi tse seng molaong. Ntle le moo, re lekanya ka mokhoa oa nakoana, ho ipapisitsoe le litlaleho tse 'maloa tsa papali ea chelete le ho itlopa joala (bona hape tlhahlobo ea Lacey & Evans, 1986), hore 20% ea batho ba tsubang sakerete, ba sebelisang joala hampe, kapa ba sebelisang hampe lithethefatsi le bona ba ka ba le tse ling tsa tse lemalloang tse robeli. Sena se bontšoa ho Lethathamo 3.

 

Lethathamo 3

Ho hakanngoa ho ata le ho ba teng ha liketsahalo tse 11 tse fapaneng tsa likamano

Menahano ea boits'oaro ba Co-Addictive le Boemo bo akaretsang

Ho ipapisitsoe le tlhaiso-leseling e kaholimo, re hakanyelitse palo e akaretsang ea likhoeli tse 12 tsa boitšoaro bo lemalang har'a batho ba baholo ba Amerika ka tsela e latelang: lisakerete-11%, joala-15%, ts'ebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi-10%, ho ja-5%, papali ea chelete- 2%, Inthanete-2%, lerato-2%, thobalano-3%, boikoetliso-3%, mosebetsi-3%, le ho reka-10%. Ke lithuto tse 6 feela tse kholo tse tlalehiloeng ho Lethathamo 2 e fane ka tlhahisoleseling efe kapa efe mabapi le litlamorao tse itseng tsa ts'ebelisano 'moho. Kahoo, re sebelisitse ka bolokolohi lithuto tse nyane tse ngotsoeng. Ketsahalo ea kopano ea bokhoba ba tahi e thehiloe e hakantsoe ho tsoa boitsebisong bona, joalo ka ha ho bonts'itsoe ho Lethathamo 3. Ha ho nahanoa lits'ebetso tsena tse 11 kaofela, motho a ka etsa mohopolo o mong le o mong o mabapi le ketsahalo ea ona. Taba ea mantlha, motho a ka nka hore ha ho na ho kopana ho teng litlamong. Haeba ho joalo, motho o ne a ka eketsa bongata ba boitšoaro bo lemalloang, 'me liperesente tsohle tsa lithethefatsi li ka eketsa ho 3%. Ho hlakile hore hobane li-co-addiction li tlalehiloe haholo, mohopolo ona ha o na taba.

Taba ea bobeli, motho a ka nka hore ho na le "tlallano e felletseng" hara litlatsetso; ke hore, bona batho bao ba ile ba hlokofatsoa ke tsena tsohle tse 11 tsa tahi. Haeba sena e ne e le 'nete, batho ba nang le boits'oaro bo bobe ba ne ba tla tlaleha hore ba na le lithethefatsi tsohle tse 11 tse nang le 100%. Haeba ho ne ho na le 100% e fetang, motho a ka nka ho ata hohle e le boits'oaro bo le bong bo phahameng ka ho fetesisa ba ho tsuba, e ka bang ho tsuba sakerete hoo e ka bang 15% ea baahi. Leha ho le joalo, bakeng sa tahi efe kapa efe e 'meli, karolelano ea ketsahalo e le 23.42% (range = 10-50%), likhakanyo tsa lipara tse 110 li fumaneha Lethathamo 3 (Hape sheba puisano ka Essau, 2008).

Taba ea boraro, motho a ka nahana hore ho na le batho ba lemaletseng boitšoaro bo le bong le batho ba lemaletseng mekhoa e 'meli kapa ho feta. Khopolo ena e tsamaisana le lintlha tse fumanehang. Ho tseba palo ea baahi ba nang le boits'oaro bo feteletseng le boits'oaro bo tlallanang ha ho so sebetsoe hantle joalo ka hajoale. Leha ho le joalo, motho a ka etsa likhakanyo tse fapaneng. Khakanyo e 'ngoe e nkuoa ka ho tlosa keketseho e etsahetseng (23.42%) ho bongata ba boitšoaro bo lemalloang, ebe ho akaretsoa "phapang e ikhethang" e setseng. Seo se ka lekana le 46.71%. Khakanyo eo e ts'oana le ho tlosa ho tsoa ho palo e akaretsang ea nonoverlap (61%), 23.42% ea kakaretso eo (ke hore, 61% - [61% × 23.42%]). Tabeng eo, hoo e ka bang 47% ea batho ba baholo ba Amerika ba ka hakanngoa hore ba na le boits'oaro bo lemalloang likhoeling tse 12 tse fetileng. Haeba motho a sebelisa algorithm e bonts'a hore liperesente tse itseng (e re 25%) ea batho ba na le ts'oaetso 'me, haeba ba etsa joalo, liperesente tse itseng tsa bona (re 50%) ba kanna ba ba le ts'oaetso ea boraro, phapang e tlatselletsang ea ts'ebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi e ka hlahisoa ho tsoa ketsahalong e qalileng e tlalehiloeng (hobane boits'oaro ba boraro bo lemalloang ke monyetla oa maemo; mohlala, bona setšoantšo sa Regier et al., 1990). Ka hona, ha ho na phokotso e eketsehileng ea ho ata ha boitšoaro bo lemalloang e ka bonoang.

Khakanyo ea bobeli e tsoang khopolong ea boraro e ipapisitse le phehisano ea hore batho ba bangata ha ba na litheko tse ngata ntle le boits'oaro bo le bong bo arolelanoang, haholo-holo ho tsuba sakerete. Haeba motho a tlosa feela bongata ba ho tsuba koae lenaneng, a nka hore e kopana le mekhoa eohle e meng e lemalloang, joale batho ba ka bang 46% ba ka hakanyetsoa hore ba na le boits'oaro (e leng, 61% - 15%).

Khakanyo ea boraro e nkuoeng khopolong ea boraro ke hore, mohlomong, motho o lokela ho tlosa ho ata ha bokhoba ba tahi bo amanang haholo le ba bang, ebe o tlosa 25% ea masala ho tsoa mokhoeng o mong le o mong o lemalloang, ho nka hore masalla a mang a feta, ho fumana tse ling hape liperesente tse bolokang. Ka ho etsa joalo, hoo e ka bang 34.5% (ke hore, 46% - [46% × 25%] ea baahi ba ka hakanngoa hore ba na le boitšoaro bo hlephileng. Likhakanyo tsa bobeli le tsa boraro tse tsoang khopolong ea boraro li kanna tsa ba tse bolokang maikutlo haholo hobane ha ho motho ea itšoereng hampe ea amanang hampe le ka matla le litlamorao tse ling kaofela. Mohlala, ho tsuba sakerete ka ho hlaka ho amahanngoa haholo le ts'ebeliso ea joala, ts'ebeliso e ngoe ea lithethefatsi, le papali ea chelete, empa eseng boitšoaro bo bong.

Ka kakaretso, motho a ka nahana hore ha ho na nonoverlap e felletseng, ho kopana ho felletseng, kapa ho kopana ho hoholo lipakeng tsa boits'oaro bo lemalloang. Ho kopana ho fokolang ho bonahala ho lekana data hantle. Ka har'a mofuta ona, motho a ka tlosa bokhoba ba tahi e habeli, e leng bokhoba bo atileng ka ho fetesisa bo nahanang hore bo koahetsoe ke tahi e fetelletseng, kapa bokhoba bo phahameng ka ho fetesisa bo nang le 25% e eketsehileng e nahanang ka mofuta o batlang o tloaetse. Ho na le likhakanyo tse ling tse ngata tse ka etsoang. Mohlala, khakanyo e 'ngoe e ka tsoa ho polelo ea hore ketsahalo e phahameng ka ho fetesisa ea ketsahalo (hoo e ka bang 50%) e lokela ho tlosoa ho e mong ho itšoara ka mokhoa o lemalloang, hore feela e be ba bolokang mekhoa e metle, kapa mohlomong, e tsoang tumelong ea hore batho ba lemaletse li “lemaletse lintho ka thata” joaloka makhoba, 'me li tlameha ho ba le makhoba a mangata. Ke batho ba 30.5% feela ba ka hakanngoang hore ba na le bonyane lefu le le leng la bokhoba ha 50% eo e ka tlosoa (ke hore, 61% - [61% × 50%]).

Ha re nahana ka li-algorithms tsena tse fapaneng, re lumela hore ho nka ho ata hohle ho akaretsoa ho boitšoaro bohle le ho tlosa ho palo eo ketsahalo e tloaelehileng ea likamano tse peli tsa tahi e bonts'a mohlala o bontšitsoeng ho Lethathamo 3. Kahoo, re hakanya hore hoo e ka bang 47% ea batho ba baholo ba Amerika ba na le bothata ba 1 ho tsena tse 11 tse lemalloang nakong ea likhoeli tse 12.

Bokhoba joaloka Lefu kapa Bothata Bophelong

Hajoale, litsebi tse ngata li nka ho lemalla lithethefatsi e le lefu le sa foleng le le sa foleng hape (mohlala, Leshner, 1997; Sussman le Ames, 2008), E ts'oanang le mathata a mang a sa foleng a kang khatello ea mali kapa asthma (O'Brien le McLellan, 1996). Ka hona, hoa hlokahala ho khetholla hore na bokhoba ba tahi ke ntho e tloaelehileng haholo joalo ka mafu (mohlomong, e atile joalo ka mefuta e meng ea ntaramane), kapa hore na, ka ho ata ho hoholo joalo, bokhoba ba tahi bo bonahatsa tse ling kapa tse ling tse ngata (tse ngata). Mohlala, mohlomong, bokhoba ba tahi (le bona) ke boemo ba bophelo bo etsisoang ke maemo a sechaba le tikoloho (Sussman le Ames, 2008), mohlomong ka linako tse mahlonoko tsa kholo moo motho a leng tlokotsing ea ho hatisa mokhoa ona oa bophelo (Volkow & Bohlale, 2005). Haeba bokhoba bo ratoa haholo ke bahlaseluoa, bo fapana le lintho tsa bokhoba ka ho fihlella lintho, maemo a sechaba, nako e hlokoang, le matla a mang a nts'etsopele ea tikoloho ea sechaba, ho ka etsahala hore liphetoho tsa maano a sechaba lia hlokahala, tse ka thibelang kapa tsa tsamaisa boits'oaro bo feteletseng joalo. ho tsoa liphellong tse intšang nakong eohle ea bophelo, le boits'oaro ba mocha ka tsela e hahang haholoanyane (bona Griffiths, 2009b; Letšoao, 1990; Orford, 2001; Schaef, 1987).

Ho ntšetsoa pele, Larkin, Wood, le Griffiths (2006) pheha khang ea hore litsebi tsa bophelo bo botle li lokela ho ba hlokolosi hore li se ke tsa hokela lebitso la "tlhekefetso" ho batho bao, leha ba kentse letsoho haholo, kapa ba tsebahala ka matla ka ketsahalo e itseng, ba sa utloeng bohloko. Joalokaha Larkin le basebetsi-'moho (2006) tlhokomeliso, ntle le haeba batho ba le kotsing e totobetseng ea ho ba le mathata a 'mele, maikutlo, likamano, le lichelete ka lebaka la ts'ebetso ea bona, ha ho na thuso ebile ha ho na toka ho ba hlalosa ba tšoeroe ke boemo bo kang ba lefu.

Ka bomalimabe, ho sa tsotelehe maikutlo a motho ka "bokhoba," ho kenella ka mokhoa o ts'oanang le boits'oaro bo bong le bo bong bo hlahisitsoeng sengolong sena ho ka baka liphetoho tse kholo litseleng tsa boko, haholoholo sistimi ea mesolimbic dopaminergic (moputso) (Leshner, 1997; Sussman le Ames, 2008). Liphetoho tsena le tsona li ka ameha bothateng ba ho khaotsa boitšoaro bo lemalloang. Ka nako e 'ngoe, ho lemalla hangata ho lebisa ho bokellaneng ha litlamorao tse fapaneng tse mpe (Sussman le Ames, 2008). Esita le seo ho thoeng ke lithethefatsi tse ntle (Glasser, 1976; Griffiths, 1996) e kanna ea ba le litlamorao tse mpe ho lekhoba (bona E sootho, 1993, ka "litlhohonolofatso tse tsoakiloeng"). Sena se ka kenyelletsa ho tepella ho tsoa mosebetsing. Seo mohlomong se leng bohlokoa ka ho fetesisa ho tsepamisoa ke litsebi tsa bophelo bo botle ke ho qobelloa ho batla boits'oaro bo itseng khafetsa leha o tseba ka litlamorao tse ka bang kotsi tsa bophelo bo botle le sechaba. Qobello ena e kanna ea ba tšebetso ea liphetoho tsa methapo ea kutlo, maemo a amanang le kelello (mohlala, maikutlo a boikhethelo a ho se phomole, ho teneha, kapa ho se khotsofale), le ho tsamaisa boits'oaro ba sechaba. Lipatlisiso tsa nako e tlang li hlokahala ho utloisisa hantle hore na hobaneng batho ba bang ba tlohela mosebetsi habonolo mme ba bang ba sa tlohele, le hore na liphapang tsa ho tlohela sekolo e kanna ea ba tšusumetso ea phello ea 'mele le maemo a sechaba. Ehlile, moo sekoaelo sa lefu se nolofalletsang kutloelo-bohloko kalafong, se kanna sa tsoela pele ho sebetsa ka mokhoa oa bophelo.Sussman le Ames, 2008)

sheba mefokolo ea

Ho na le meeli e mengata ha tlhahlobo e lekoa thutong ena. Taba ea mantlha, ho bile le bohloka ba tlhaiso-leseling ka bongata le ketsahalo e kopaneng ea tse ling tsa boits'oaro bo hlephileng (ke hore, lerato, thobalano, boikoetliso, bokhoba ba mosebetsi le ho ea mabenkeleng). Ho hlokahala lithuto tse ling ka boits'oaro bona bo nang le mehlala e meholo. Taba ea bobeli, ke lithuto tse fokolang haholo tse hlahlobileng lithethefatsi tse ngata sampoleng e tšoanang. Mosebetsi o mong oa mofuta ona o kanna oa fana ka leseling. Mohlala, phuputsong ea lintlha tsa tlhaiso-leseling, ho fumanoe mekhoa e meng e lemalloang molaong e le ntho e le 'ngoe (mosebetsi, ho ja, lerato, boikoetliso le ho ea mabenkeleng), athe papali ea chelete e fumanoe e le maemong a fapaneng (mohlomong, a sa amohelehe sechabeng ea molao empa ka kakaretso e le molaong), le ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi (koae, joala le ts'ebeliso e seng molaong ea lithethefatsi) le bokhoba ba thobalano bo fumanoe bo jara ntlha ea boraro, mohlomong e bonts'a boits'oaro bo fetelletseng (MacLaren & Best, 2010). Liphuputso tse ling tse lekolang mekhoa ea ho itšoara hampe ka mohlala o le mong li ka nolofalletsa sechaba se nang le seabo (ho kenyeletsoa bafuputsi le litsebi lefapheng la boits'oaro bo lemalloang) ho ithuta haholoanyane ka boits'oaro ba mantlha le ketsahalo e kopanetsoeng ea boits'oaro, 'me ka hona tšoara hantle boitšoaro bona.

Taba ea boraro, ho ata ha boitšoaro bo lemalloang bo nkuoeng tlhahlobisong ea rona ho its'etlehile ka litekanyetso tsa kenyelletso. Mohlala, re lekile ho nka feela ba tlalehang maemo a feteletseng a papali ea chelete ("papali ea chelete") e le makhoba a papali ea chelete. Haeba re ne re lula re kenyelelitse "bothata ba papali ea chelete" (Lesieur et al., 1991), Ho ata ha papali ea chelete ho ka be ho imenne habeli mme ho kopana le mekhoa e meng e lemalloang ho ka be ho bile ho hoholo. E le mohlala o mong kahare ho bokhoba ba inthanete, re lekile ho kenyelletsa feela mehlala ea batho ka kakaretso lipatlisisong tsa rona. Leha ho le joalo, lipatlisiso tse ngata mabapi le bokhoba ba inthanete li entsoe ka mehlala e ikhethileng ea basebelisi ba Marang-rang eseng liphuputsong tsa batho ka kakaretso. Kahoo, litheko tsa bokhoba ba inthanete li ka ba le moea o phahameng. E le mohlala oa boraro, bafuputsi ba bang ba buile ka bokhoba ba thobalano e le palo ea li-orgasms ka beke, ho fapana le litekanyetso tsa litlamorao, mme kamano lipakeng tsa makhetlo a thobalano le litlamorao tse mpe ha e hlake (Kaplan le Krueger, 2010). Haeba re ne re hlalositse bokhoba ba thobalano e le ho ba le li-orgasms bonyane matsatsi a 7 ka beke, ho ata ho ka ba holimo ho 5-7%. E le mohlala oa bone, ha lithuto tse ngata li shebile nako ea ho qetela ea likhoeli tse 12 mme li sebelisitse DSM mohlala, ho bile le phapang ea nako le litekanyetso tsa ho beha lintlha (bona Lethathamo 2). Sena se eketsa lerata le leng hape ha re nahana ka litekanyetso tsa ho kenyelletsa ha li bapisoa le lithethefatsi. E le mohlala oa bohlano, re lekile ho shebana le batho ba baholo ba Amerika. Ho kenyelletsa linaha tse ling kapa lihlopha tsa lilemo lipalo li kanna tsa fetola liphetho tse ling (mohlala, ho ata ha ho tsuba koae ho bonahala ho phahame linaheng tse ling tsa Europe ho feta United States).

Ea bone, phuputso ena ha ea ka ea hlahloba moelelo oa “lithethefatsi tse tlatsetsoang”. Khopolo ea bokhoba bo lemalitsoeng e ntse e tšohloa ka lilemo tse ngata ke litho tsa mokhatlo oa ho hlaphoheloa le ke litsebi tsa ho hlaphoheloa (Chiauzzi, 1991; Gorski & Miller, 1986; Horvath, 1999, 2006; Murphy le Hoffman, 1993; Sussman & Mnyama, 2008). Khopolo ena e bua ka boitšoaro bofe kapa bofe bo lemalloang bo sebeletsang bonyane ts'ebetso e le 'ngoe ea bohlokoa e neng e fihletsoe pele ke boits'oaro bo bong bo lemalloang, mme ho a utloahala hore efe kapa efe ea boits'oaro bona bo ka lemalehang. Ntle le haeba lithethefatsi tseo ka bobeli li ne li le khoeling e le 'ngoe ea 12, li ka be li sa ka tsa nkuoa e le lithethefatsi tse etsahalang thutong ea hajoale.

Ea bohlano, ho khetholla "ntho" ea bokhoba ba tahi ho ka se fane ka tsebo ea eona, e ka fapana ho ea ka batho. Ka mohlala, Litlhaku (2000a) a pheha khang ea hore ho na le tlhoko ea ho khetholla lipakeng tsa lithethefatsi ho marang-rang le likeletso on Marang-rang (mohlala, papali ea chelete, papali ea komporo, lerato kapa thobalano). Ehlile, boits'oaro bo bong bo fumanehang marang-rang (mohlala, cybersex, cyberstalking, le chat chat) e ka ba boits'oaro boo motho a ka bo etsang feela inthaneteng hobane sets'oants'o se ka nkuoa se sa tsejoe, se sa shebane sefahleho, le ho thibela (Griffiths, 2000a, 2000b; E monyenyane, 1996).

Ntlha ea botšelela, ho khetholla ketsahalo e kopaneng ea lithethefatsi ha ho supe sesosa sa likarolo tse "ikhethileng" le "tse arolelanoeng". Patlisiso ea nako e tlang e hloka ho lekola mabaka a ka etsang hore batho ba bang ba utloisoe bohloko ke boitsoaro bo bong bo lemalloang eseng bo bong, kapa hobaneng batho ba bang ba tloaetse ho ba le litlatsetso tse ngata (mohlala, joalo ka ha ho ka ba joalo ho batho ba nang le Borderline Personality Disorder; Bagby, Vachon, Bulmash, & Qu molato, 2008). Ntle le moo, motho o ntse a tlameha ho ikarabella bakeng sa hore, mohlala, batho ba fokolang haholo ba lemalla heroine kapa papali ea chelete, empa ke ba fokolang haholo bao ho nahanoang hore ba ka lemalla ho lema serapa.

Kamora nako, lethathamo la lithethefatsi tse khethiloeng sengolong sena li ka qosoa ka mehlala e bonolo. Ho na le mekhoa e meng e ka lemalloang eo motho a ka e kenyelletsang tlhahlobisong e joalo eo batho ba tšoanang ba ka bang le eona. Boitšoaro bo bong bo nkoang bo lemalla bo kenyelletsa caffeine (Cook, 1987), bolumeli (Sussman & Mnyama, 2008; Taylor, 2002), Lipapali tsa video tse fumanehang kantle ho naha (Fisher, 1994 [Bacha ba 6% ba 467 ba lilemo li 11 ho isa ho 16 ba UK ba fumanoe e le makhoba a lipapali tsa video]; Griffiths le Meredith, 2009), ho khetha letlalo ka mokhoa o qobelloang kapa ho hula moriri (ke hore, trichotillomania; Brewer & Potenza, 2008; Letšoao, 1990lefu la tsoekere (kleptomania),Cook, 1987; Letšoao, 1990Ts'ebeliso ea mohala oa mohala (Bianchi le Phillips, 2005), pica (Lacey, 1990), ho koala (Poorsattar le Hornung, 2010), Le boitšoaro bo mabifi (Sussman le Ames, 2008) kapa ho utsoa likoloi le ho palama ka thabo (Kellett le Gross, 2006). Lipatlisiso tse ling ka bophara ba boitšoaro bo lemalloang li ka lebisa kutloisisong e ntle ea lits'ebetso tse lemalloang tse hlahisang lintho tse itseng tsa tahi.

dithuso tsa ditjhelete

Sengoli (s) se senotse hore se fumane tšehetso e latelang ea lichelete bakeng sa lipatlisiso le / kapa bongoli ba sengoloa sena: Setsi sa Naha sa Tlhekefetso ea Lithethefatsi (# sDA020138).

Phatlalatso ea Likhohlano

Sengoli (s) ha se phatlalatse hore ho na le likhohlano tsa lithahasello mabapi le bongoli le / kapa phatlalatso ea sengoloa sena.

1. Aboujaoude E, Koran LM, Gamel N, MD e kholo, Serpe RT. Lintlha tse ka bang teng bakeng sa ts'ebeliso e thata ea inthanete: Patlisiso ea mohala ea batho ba baholo ba 2,513. Likarolo tsa CNS. 2006; 11: 750-755. [E fetotsoe]
2. Adams J. Ho utloisisa ho itšetleha ka boikoetliso. Leqephe la Contemporary Psychotherapy. 2009; 39: 231-240.
3. Agrawal A, Neale MC, Prescott CA, Kendler KS. Cannabis le lithethefatsi tse ling tse seng molaong: Ts'ebeliso ea Comorbid le tlhekefetso / ts'epahalo ho banna le basali. Boitšoaro ba liphatsa tsa lefutso. 2004; 34: 217-228. [E fetotsoe]
4. Albrecht U, Kirschner NE, Grusser SM. Lisebelisoa tsa ho lemoha bokhoba ba boitšoaro: Kakaretso. GMS Psycho-Social-Medicine. 2007; 4: 11. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
5. Alexander BK, Schweighofer ARF. Ho ata ha bokhoba ba tahi har'a baithuti ba univesithi. Psychology ea Likhathatso tse Eketsang. 1989; 2: 116-123.
6. Allegre B, Souville M, Therme P, Griffiths M. Litlhaloso le mehato ea ho itšetleha ka boikoetliso. Patlisiso ea Lithethefatsi le Khopolo. 2006; 14: 631-646.
7. Allison KC, Grilo CM, Masheb RM, Stunkard AJ. Ho itlopa joala le bothata ba ho ja bosiu: Phuputso e bapisang ea ho ja hampe. Journal ea Boeletsi le Clinical Psychology. 2005; 73: 1107-1115. [E fetotsoe]
8. Anderson KJ. Ts'ebeliso ea inthanete har'a baithuti ba koleche: Boithuto bo hlahlobang. Litaba tsa American College Health. 2001; 80: 21-26. [E fetotsoe]
9. Bagby RM, Vachon DD, Bulmash E, Liphoso LC. Mathata a botho le papali ea chelete e sa tloaelehang: Tlhahlobo le tlhahlobo e ncha ea sekhahla sa bongata. Tlaleho ea Mathata a Botho. 2008; 22: 191-207. [E fetotsoe]
10. Bakken IJ, Wenzel HG, Gotestam KG, Johansson A, Oren A. Ho lemalla marang-rang har'a batho ba baholo ba Norwegan: Mohlala o tiisitsoeng oa monyetla oa ho ithuta. Scandinavia Journal of Psychology. 2009; 50: 121-127. [E fetotsoe]
11. Bamber D, Cockerill IM, Carroll D. Boemo ba lefu la ho itšetleha ka boikoetliso. Koranta ea Brithani ea Bongaka ba Lipapali. 2000; 34: 125-132. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
12. Barnes GM, Welte JW, Hoffman JH, Tidwell M-CQ. Ho becha, joala le tšebeliso e 'ngoe ea lithethefatsi har'a bacha ba United States. Journal ea Lithuto ka Joala le Lithethefatsi. 2009; 70: 134-142. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
13. Becona E. Ho ata ha papali ea chelete ho Galicia (Spain) Tlaleho ea Lithuto tsa Papali ea chelete. 1993; 9: 353-369.
14. Bernardi S, Pallanti S. Ho lemalla marang-rang: Boithuto bo hlalosang ba bongaka bo shebaneng le comorbidities le matšoao a dissociative. Psychiatry e felletseng. 2009; 50: 510-516. [E fetotsoe]
15. Bianchi A, Phillips JG. Lits'oants'o tsa kelello tsa bothata ba ts'ebeliso ea mehala ea mohala. CyberPsychology le Boitšoaro. 2005; 8: 39-51. [E fetotsoe]
16. DW e Ntšo. Tlhahlobo ea bothata ba ho reka bo qobelloang. Psychiatry ea Lefatše. 2007; 6: 14-18. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
17. DW e ntšo, Kehrberg LL, Flumerfelt DL, Schlosser SS. Litšobotsi tsa lithuto tsa 36 tse tlalehang boitšoaro bo qobelloang ba thobalano. Journal ea Amerika ea Psychiatry. 1997; 154: 243-249. [E fetotsoe]
18. Black DW, Moyer T. Likarolo tsa bongaka le boits'oaro ba kelello ba lithuto tse nang le boits'oaro ba papali ea chelete. Litšebeletso tsa kelello. 1998; 49: 1434-1439. [E fetotsoe]
19. Bondolfi G, Osiek C, Ferrero F.Paleletso ea likhakanyo tsa papali ea chelete ho la Switzerland. Acta Pscyhiatrica Scandinavica. 2000; 101: 473-475. [E fetotsoe]
20. Brandon TH, Vidrine JI, Litvin EB. Thibelo ea ho khutlela morao le ho khutlela morao. Tlhahlobo ea Selemo le Selemo ea Clinical Psychology. 2007; 3: 257-284. [E fetotsoe]
21. Brenner V. Psychology ea ts'ebeliso ea likhomphutha: XLVII. Mefuta ea ts'ebeliso ea likhomphutha, tlhekefetso le bokhoba: Matsatsi a 90 a pele a Patlisiso ea Ts'ebeliso ea Inthanete. Litlaleho tsa kelello. 1997; 80: 879-882. [E fetotsoe]
22. Brewer JA, Potenza MN. Neurobiology le liphatsa tsa lefutso tsa mathata a ho laola maikutlo: Likamano le lithethefatsi tsa lithethefatsi. Likhemik'hale Pharmacology. 2008; 75: 63-75. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
23. RIF e sootho. Menehelo e meng ea thuto ea papali ea chelete ho ithuteng ka lithethefatsi tse ling. Ka: Eadington WR, Cornelius J, bahlophisi. Boitšoaro ba papali ea chelete le bothata ba papali ea chelete. Reno: Univesithi ea Nevada Press; 1993. maq. 341-372.
24. Burke RJ. Ts'ebetsong mosebetsing mekhatlong: Phapang ea bong. Mesebetsi ea thobalano. 1999; 41: 333-345.
25. Burke RJ. Ts'ebetsong mosebetsing mekhatlong: Mehopolo, liphetho le litsamaiso tsa nako e tlang. Koranta ea Machabeng ea Litlhahlobo tsa Tsamaiso. 2000; 2: 1-16.
26. Cao F, Su L. Bokhoba ba inthanete har'a bacha ba China: Ho ata le likarolo tsa kelello. Ngoana: Tlhokomelo, Bophelo bo botle le Nts'etsopele. 2006; 33: 275-281. [E fetotsoe]
27. Carnes P. Se ke oa e bitsa lerato: Ho hlaphoheloa bokhobeng ba thobalano. New York, NY: Bantam; 1991.
28. Carnes PJ, Murray RE, Charpentier L. Bothata ba ho sebelisana le lithethefatsi. Ka: Coombs RH, mohlophisi. Bukana ea mathata a lemalloang: Tataiso e sebetsang ea tlhahlobo le kalafo. New York, NY: John Wiley; 2004. maq. 31-62.
29. Carnes PJ, Murray RE, Charpentier L. Lits'oaetso tse nang le pherekano: Batho ba lemaletseng ho kopanela liphate le ba nang le bothata ba ho sebelisana le ba lemalloang. Ho lemalla thobalano le ho qobella. 2005; 12: 79-120.
30. Castro-Fornieles J, Diaz R, Goti J, Calvo R, Gonzalez L, Serrano L, Gual A. Ho ata le lintlha tse amanang le ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi har'a bacha ba nang le mathata a ho ja. Patlisiso ea Lithethefatsi ea Europe. 2010; 16: 61-68. [E fetotsoe]
31. Chen K, Sheth AJ, Elliott DK, Yeager A. Ho ata le likamano tsa tšebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi tsa selemo se fetileng, tlhekefetso le boits'epo ho sampole ea sechaba sa teropo ea sekolo se phahameng. Liketso tse lemalloang. 2004; 29: 413-423. [E fetotsoe]
32. Chiauzzi EJ. Ho thibela ho khutlela mokhoeng oa bokhoba: Mokhoa oa biopsychosocial. Elmsford, NY: Phatlalatso ea Pergamon; 1991.
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