Lipotoloho tsa ho felisoa ka tšabo le ho lemala li kenella ka prefrontal cortex (2009)

Ithute Mem. 2009 Apr 20;16(5):279-88. doi: 10.1101/lm.1041309.

Peters J1, Kalivas PW, Quirk GJ.

inahaneloang

Ho felisoa ke mokhoa oa ho ithuta o thibelang maikutlo o hatellang karabelo e neng e entsoe pele. Ka bobeli tšabo le ho batla lithethefatsi ke likarabo tse ka lebisang liketsong tse sa sebetseng hantle ha li hlahisoa ka mokhoa o sa lokelang, tse hlahang e le mathata a ho tšoenyeha le ho lemalla. Bopaki ba morao-rao bo bonts'a hore medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) e bohlokoa bakeng sa ho felisoa ha mekhoa ea ts'abo le ea ho batla lithethefatsi. Ntle le moo, phapang ea dorsal-ventral e bonahala kahare ho mPFC, e le hore cortex ea prelimbic (PL-mPFC) e tsamaisa polelo ea tšabo le ho tsoma lithethefatsi, athe infralimbic (IL-mPFC) cortex e hatella mekhoa ena kamora ho timela. Bakeng sa tšabo e nang le maemo, dorsal-ventral dichotomy e phethoa ka likhakanyo tsa mefuta-futa ho li-subregions tse fapaneng tsa amygdala, athe bakeng sa ho batla lithethefatsi, e phethoa ka lipakanyo tsa ho khelosa ho li-subregions tsa li-nucleus tse bokellaneng. Ho latela hore mPFC e emela sebaka se tloaelehileng seterekeng sa ho timela bakeng sa boits'oaro bona, kalafo e lebileng sebakeng sena e ka thusa ho fokotsa mats'oafo a ho ts'oenyeha le mathata a tlhekefetso ka ho matlafatsa mohopolo oa ho timela.

Mehopolo ea maikutlo, kahara libaka tse khahlang le tse khahlisang, e bohlokoa bakeng sa ho tataisa boitsoaro. Ho laola polelo ea mehopolo ena ho bohlokoa bakeng sa bophelo bo botle ba kelello. Ho felisoa ha maemo a khale ke mofuta o mong oa melao ea tsamaiso o fetisoang habonolo ho liphoofolo. Sebakeng sa marang-rang, se khothalletsang se nang le maemo (CS) se tloaetse ho penta ka tšohanyetso, ha se ntse se le boemong ba takatso ea lijo, CS e ngotsoe ka ho fumaneha ha moputso oa lijo kapa lithethefatsi. Tlhahiso e phetoa-phetoang ea CS ha ho se ho matlafatsoa ho lebisa ho feliseng tšabo ea maemo kapa boits'oaro bo batlang lithethefatsi. Lilemong tsa morao tjena, ho bile le tsoelo-pele e kholo kutloisisong ea rona ea "neural circry" e ikarabellang bakeng sa mofuta ona oa thuto ea inhibitory (bakeng sa litlhahlobo, bona Cammarota et al. 2005; Maren 2005; Myers le Davis 2007; Quirk le Mueller 2008). Cortex ea pele-pele e bile le tšusumetso e matla polelong ea tšabo (Powell et al. 2001; Vidal-Gonzalez et al. 2006; Corcoran le Quirk 2007) le tšabo ea ho timela (Herry le Garcia 2002; Milad le Quirk 2002; Gonzalez-Lima le Bruchey 2004; Hugues et al. 2004; Burgos-Robles et al. 2007; Hikind le Maroun 2008; Lin et al. 2008; Mueller et al. 2008; Sotres-Bayon et al. 2008), hape haufinyane tjena, ka polelo ea ho batla lithethefatsi kamora ho timela (Peters et al. 2008a,b). Liphumano tsena li tsamaisana le karolo e ngotsoeng hantle ea cortex ea pele ho ts'ebetso ea botsamaisi le taolo ea maikutlo (Miller 2000; Fuster 2002; Quirk le Beer 2006; Sotres-Bayon et al. 2006).

Thutong ena, re etsa tlhahiso ea hore medial preambilial cortex (mPFC) e laole polelo ea maikutlo le litšeho tsa litakatso tsa lithethefatsi kamora ho timela, ka lipakanyo tse fapaneng ho ea ho amygdala le li-bokellase tsa nucleus, ka ho latellana. Ho hloleha ho felisoa ka ho feteletseng kahara marang-rang a marang-rang ho ka baka mathata a ho tšoenyeha (Delgado et al. 2006; Milad et al. 2006), ha ho hloleha ho felisoa sebakeng se thobang takatso ho ka lebisa ho oeleng hape lithutong tse lemaletseng (Kalivas et al. 2005; Garavan le Hester 2007). Potoloho e tloaelehileng ea neural bakeng sa ho felisa tšabo le ho hopola lithethefatsi e ka khothaletsa mekhoa le maano a phekoloang libakeng ka bobeli.

Taolo ea pele ea ho felisoa ha tšabo e nang le maemo

Bopaki ba pele-pele ba hore cortex ea pele e ka ba sebaka sa bohlokoa sa ho felisoa ha tšabo e nang le maemo e ne e le ho bona hore liphoso tsa pele li lebisitse ho khethollo e khethiloeng (1).Morgan et al. 1993; Sotres-Bayon et al. 2006). Ka ho khetheha, karohano e kenella ea "potent" ea methapo ea methapo ea methapo, e bitsoang infralimbic cortex (IL-mPFC), e ne e ikarabella bakeng sa sena (Morgan le LeDoux 1995; Feie. 1). Ho tloha ka nako eo, bopaki bo bokellang bo bontšitse hore polasetiki ho IL-mPFC e bohlokoa molemong oa ho timela. Protein synthesis inhibitors (Sstrong et al. 2004), Li-inhibitors tsa MAPK (Hugues et al. 2004), Li-blockers tsa NMDA receptor (Burgos-Robles et al. 2007; Sotres-Bayon et al. 2008kapa li-inactivator tsa meriana (Sierra-Mercado et al. 2006) inj inj ea sebakeng sa heno IL-mPFC e sitisa bokhoni ba ho hopola ho timela hamorao. Lintlha tsena li tšehetsa mohopolo oa nako e telele oa hore ho ithuta ho feteletseng ho etsa hore motho a se ke a lebala lintho tse sa bonahaleng ka lebaka la maemo a (Konorski 1967; Rescorla 2004).

Setšoantšo sa 1. 

Dorsal bapisoa le libaka tse ka hare tsa methapo ea methapo ea methapo ea methapo pele li laola tšabo le ho batla lithethefatsi. Likarolo tse 'ne tse kholo tsa "centex" ea pele ea methapo ea methapo li bonts'oa haufi le meeli ea Paxinos le Watson anatomical (3.0 mm anterior to bregma) (Paxinos le Watson 2005). Ketsahalo sebakeng sa prelimbic (PL) e khothaletsa polelo ea tšabo e nang le maemo le boits'oaro bo batlang cocaine. Dorsal to PL ke dorsal anterior cingrate cortex (ACd), eo hape e ka khothalletsang tšabo le ho batla lithethefatsi. Cortex ea infralimbic (IL), e kenellang kahare ho PL, e phahamisa ho felisoa ha tšabo e nang le maemo le boits'oaro bo batlang cocaine. "Porral-most dorsopeduncular cortex" (DP) e ka tšoana le IL ka bokhoni ba ho thibela tšabo le ho batla lithethefatsi. Ka hona, libaka tse qabolang tsa "cortex" ea mori pele ho nako li eketsa tšabo le ho ts'oasa lithethefatsi (metsu up), ha libaka tse hare li fana ka phello e fapaneng le boitšoaro, e fokotsa tšabo le ho batla lithethefatsi (metsu fatše).

Ts'ebetso ho IL-mPFC ke mokena-lipakeng oa memori ea thibelo e thehiloeng phethehong. Rekoto ea yuniti e le 'ngoe e senola hore karabelo ea CS ho li-neurons tsa IL-mPFC e hlaha feela kamora hore thuto ea ho timela e etsahale, mme e lumellana le boemo ba ho timela bo hopoloang (Milad le Quirk 2002). Plasticity kahare ho IL-mPFC e boetse e bontšitsoe ho nts'etsa pele ts'ebetso ea ho boloka mehopolo ea ho timela, e hlahisang khatello ea maemo a tšabo (Herry le Garcia 2002). Kamora nako, mahlahana a ntlafatsang ts'ebetso ea metabolic ho IL-mPFC (Gonzalez-Lima le Bruchey 2004) le khothaletso ea motlakase ka kotloloho ea IL-mPFC (Milad et al. 2004; Vidal-Gonzalez et al. 2006; Setšoantšo sa 2B), ka bobeli li khothaletsa polelo ea ho timela. Ka kopanelo, lintlha tsena li fana ka maikutlo a hore IL-mPFC e buisana le tšabo e thibelang.

Setšoantšo sa 2. 

Ntlafatso ea ts'ebetso ho cortex ea prelimbic e eketsa tšabo le ho ts'oasa lithethefatsi, ha ho ntse ho ntlafatsa ts'ebetso ho infralimbic cortex ho na le litlamorao tse fapaneng. (A) Matla a motlakase oa motlakase (stim) oa prelimbic (PL) cortex e ntlafatsa tšabo e nang le maemo a amanang le taolo e sa sebetseng (cont). Melao ea boitšoaro ho y-axis e emela liperesente tse leqhoa ho molumo o tšosang oa CS. Microstimulation e entsoe sebokeng sa pele sa ho timela (Vidal-Gonzalez et al. 2006). Bakeng sa ho batla lithethefatsi, PL e ile ea hlahisoa ke ts'ebetso ea lehae ea dopamine (30 nmol / lehlakoreng) pele ho seboka sa ho timela, kamora thupelo e pharalletseng ea ho timela. Baseline extinction araba ka nako ea thuto pele ho tlhahlobo ea PL e bonts'oa e le taolo (cont). Melao ea boitšoaro ho y-axis e emela mochine oa khatiso ho lever ea nakong e fetileng ea koae (McFarland le Kalivas 2001). (B) Matla a motlakase oa motlakase (stim) oa infralimbic (IL) cortex e fokotsa tšabo e nang le maemo a amanang le taolo e sa sebetseng (cont). Lintlha tse bokelletsoeng thutong e tšoanang (Vidal-Gonzalez et al. 2006) ho PL tshusumetso e bonts'itsoeng A. Bakeng sa ho batla lithethefatsi, IL e ile ea hlahisoa ke ts'oaetso ea lehae ea AMPA (0.1 nmol / lehlakoreng) pele ho etsoa tlhahlobo ea koae, ka mor'a ho koetlisoa ka botlalo. Pheta-pheto ea ho tobetsa holim'a lever e neng e kile ea sebelisoa ke koae e sebelisoa e le mokhoa oa ho batla koae.y-axis). Melemo ea ho khutlisetsa liphoofolo Microinfuse ka koloi pele ho tlhahlobo ea bocha e bontšoa e le taolo (cont) (Peters et al. 2008a). Ho beoa ha moemeli oa li-electrode tse u thusang ho kenya letsoho kapa litlatsetso ka nale ea malebela a PL (A) le IL (B) e bonts'oa liteko tsa boits'oaro le tse batlang lithethefatsi ho tokelo ho graph e ngoe le e ngoe. (*) P <0.05 ha e bapisoa le boemo ba taolo e fapaneng.

Bopaki ba morao-rao bo bonts'a hore sebaka se nang le bokhoni ba ho tsebisa batho haholo (pre -imbic prefrontal cortex (PL-mPFC) se eketsa polelo ea tšabo (Feie. 1). Le ha li-neurons tsa IL-mPFC li eketsa ts'ebetso ho CS ha tšabo e le tlase, li-neurons tsa PL-mPFC li eketsa ho thunya nakong ea ha ho fela, ha tšabo e phahame (Baeg et al. 2001; Gilmartin le McEchron 2005; Laviolette et al. 2005; Burgos-Robles et al. 2009). Ntle le moo, nako ea likarabo tsa mofuta oa li-CS-evoke-conditioned ka li-neurons tsa PL-mPFC e tsamaisana hantle haholo le nako ea ho bata hoa maemo (Burgos-Robles et al. 2009). Microstimulation ea PL-mPFC e eketsa tšabo e nang le maemo (Vidal-Gonzalez et al. 2006; Setšoantšo sa 2A), le inactivation ea litlhare tsa PL-mPFC e fokotsa tšabo e nang le maemo (Blum et al. 2006; Corcoran le Quirk 2007). Ts'usumetso ea libaka tse eketsehileng tsa dorsal, joalo ka dorsal anterior cingrate cortex (ACd-mPFC), ha e hlahise litholoana tse bonoang ke tšabo (Vidal-Gonzalez et al. 2006); leha ho le joalo, lipatlisiso tsa morao-rao li fumane hore inactivation ea ACd-mPFC e ne e khona ho fokotsa tšabo, 'me li-neuron tsa ACd-mPFC li hlahisoa ke ts'abo e susumetsang (Bissiere et al. 2008). Sena se fana ka maikutlo a hore ACd-mPFC e ka tšoana le PL-mPFC joalo ka sebaka se ts'osang. Kahoo, ho na le karohano e sebetsang ea dorsal-ventral kahare ho mPFC e ka hlalosoang e le "switch-off" e laolang polelo ea tšabo (Feie. 1).

Liphetho tsa pele tse fetolang polelo ea tšabo

Likarolo tse arohaneng tsa mPFC li ka laola mokhoa o fapaneng oa tšabo ka liphofu tse fapaneng tsa amygdala. Morero o tsoang ho mPFC ho ea ho amygdala ke glutamatergic, merero e nyakallisang (Brinley-Reed et al. 1995). Merero ea tikoloho ea PL-mPFC e sebetsa haholo ho basal amygdala (BA) (Vertes 2004; Gabbott et al. 2005), e bohlokoa bakeng sa ho bontša tšabo e nang le maemo (Anglada-Figueroa le Quirk 2005; Herry et al. 2008). Litsi tsa mantlha tsa polokelo ea memori ea tšabo amygdala ke li-amygdala tsa morao-rao (LA) (Quirk et al. 1995; Repa et al. 2001), hammoho le khubu ea methapo (CE) ea amygdala (Wilensky et al. 2006; Zimmerman et al. 2007). Hobane ha ho na khakanyo e tobileng e tsoang ho LA ho ea ho li-neuron tsa tlhahiso ea CE, ho nahanoa hore LA e susumetsa tšabo ke bohareng ba khakanyo ea lehae ea BA, eo ka eona e khahlisang CE (Blair et al. 2001). PL-mPFC ka hona e thabisa CE, ka mokhoa o ts'oanang le oa LA, ka phehisano e khutlang ho BA (Likhtik et al. 2005). Kahoo, sephetho sa ts'ebetso e eketsehang ho PL-mPFC ke keketseho e tsoang ho CE (Feie. 3), e hlahisang tšabo ka ho hakanya ho hypothalamus le brainstem (Hopkins le Holstege 1978; LeDoux et al. 1988).

Setšoantšo sa 3. 

Setšoantšo se potolohileng se bonts'a taolo ea pele ea ts'abo e nang le maemo le boits'oaro bo batlang cocaine. Likarolo tse khuts'oane tsa "dorsal and ventral" tsa "medial prefrontal cortex" (PFC) li bonts'itsoe ho setsi, ka tlhahiso ea bona ea amygdala e laolang tšabo e bontšitsoeng ho tokelo, 'me tse eang bokong li laola ho sebelisa koae ho bontšoa ho letšehali. Morero oa "cortex" oa prelimbic (PL) ho "basal (BA)" ea "amygdala", o thabisang karolo e bohareng (CE) ea amygdala, ka tsela eo o phahamisa polelo ea tšabo e nang le maemo. BA e boetse e amohela litlatsetso tse thabisang ho tsoa ho amygdala ea lateral (LA), eo hape e tsamaisang polelo ea tšabo e nang le maemo. Cortex ea infralimbic (IL), ka lehlakoreng le leng, e natefeloa ke sehlopha sa "GABAergic inhibitory neurons" se tsejoang ka hore ke maselese a sele a arohaneng. Li-neuron tsena li thibela CE, ka tsela eo li thibela tšabo le ho nyopisa ho felisoa. Ha ho bapisoa, PL le IL e laola koae e batlang ka lipakanyo tsa eona tse fapaneng ho isa mantlha le likhetla tse khubung ea li-nucleus. Merero ea PL e ea mantlha, e khothalletsang polelo ea boitšoaro bo batlang koae. Bakeng sa ho batla k'hok'heine e entsoeng ka cueine, sena se ka kenyelletsa ho hakanngoa ha bohareng ho la BA ho fihlella mantlha (mohala o motala o motala). Lenaneo la IL le sebetsa ho khetla e khothalletsang polelo ea ho timela. Ho ntse ho tlameha ho khethoa hore na ho tsoa joang likarolong tsena tse peli tsa li-bokelle ho ama ka mokhoa o fapaneng boitšoaro ba ho batla koae (bona sengoloa bakeng sa lintlha). Green e bontša litsela tse hlahisang tšabo le ho batla koae. Khubelu e bonts'a litsela tse thibelang tšabo le ho batla koae.

IL-mPFC e boetse e romella tšebetso ea nyakallo ho amygdala, empa ka ho khetheha e lebisa libaka tse nang le li-neurons tsa GABAergic karolong e ka morao ea karohano ea methapo e bohareng le lihokahaneng tsa cell cellated (ITCs), tse behiloeng lipakeng tsa basolateral amygdala tata (BLA) le CE (McDonald et al. 1996; Berretta et al. 2005; Feie. 3). Li-ITC tsena e kanna ea ba sebaka sa polasetiki bakeng sa mohopolo oa ho timela, joalo ka ha se bonts'a polasetiki e itšetlehileng ka NMDA (Royer le Pare 2002). Ts'ebetso ho IL-mPFC e kanna ea khothaletsa ho felisoa ka ho kenyeletsa thibelo ea pele ea ITC-pakeng.

Tumellanong le mofuta ona oa taolo ea amygdala ea polelo ea tšabo, bopaki ba morao-rao bo bonts'a hore ho felisoa ho ka kenyelletsa ho kopantsoe ha drive e ntlafalitsoeng ea li-ITC le ho fokotsa tlhahiso e thabisang e tsoang ho LA. Ka ho khetheha, Jüngling et al. (2008) fumana bopaki bo tšehetsang ntlafatso ea phetisetso ea phepelo ea glutamatergic ho li-ITC nakong ea ho felisoa ha tšabo e nang le maemo. Ho kenella ha li-ITCs ho bontša mohopolo oa ho timela ho ile ha lekoa ka kotloloho ke Pare le basebetsi-'moho le uena, ba bonts'itseng hore liso tse ikhethileng tsa li-ITC li bakile tšabo e felileng ea ho khutla (Likhtik et al. 2008). Ntle le ts'ebetso ea thibelo, bopaki ba morao-rao bo bontša hore ho felisoa ho kenyelletsa ho tlosoa hoa litsela tse khahlisang (Kim et al. 2007). Bangoli bana ba fumane hore ho felisoa hoa phetoho ho khutlisetsang ho eketseha hoa maemo ho tlisoang ke AMPA receptor holim'a polelo ho LA, le ho thibela AMPA receptor endocytosis kahare ho tšenyo ea LA. Ka kopanelo, lintlha tsena li fana ka maikutlo a hore phallo e tsoa ho kopantsoeng ho drive e ntlafalitsoeng ho ea libakeng tsa amygdala tse sitisang polelo ea tšabo (ITCs) le ho fokotsa tlhahiso ho tsoa libakeng tse tsamaisang polelo ea tšabo (LA), mohopolo o tšehelitsoeng ke mohlala oa morao-rao oa computational (Li et al. 2009).

Taolo ea pele ea ho felisoa ha batho ba batlang lithethefatsi

Bakeng sa boits'ebetso ba ho batla lithethefatsi, re shebana le mohlala oa ho iphetetsa ka koae. Mohlaleng ona, likhoto li ithuta ho tobetsa lever bakeng sa phepelo ea koae ka ho khetheha ka matsatsi a 'maloa ho fihlela e arabela. Ha k'hok'heine e nkeloa sebaka ke letsoai, ho fela ha lera le phehiloeng ka k'hok'heine ho etsahala ka nako e fetang ea 1-2 wk. Kamora ho felisoa, ho batla koae ho ka khutlisoa ka ho hlahisa senepe se betliloeng se tsamaisitsoeng ka k'hok'heine, litekanyetso tse fokolang tsa koae ka boeona, kapa khatello (De Wit le Stewart 1981; Shaham et al. 2003; Epstein et al. 2006). Ho khutlisetsoa hoa lithethefatsi tse latelang ho nyamela ho nahanoa hore ke mohlala oa ho oela hape tleliniking. Ho hlohlelletsa ho khutlela morao ho ka kenya tšebetsong ho batla koae ka likhakanyo tsa dopaminergic ka hara PL-mPFC (Ciccocioppo et al. 2001; McFarland le Kalivas 2001; McFarland et al. 2004; Setšoantšo sa 2A). Ka bobeli li-receptor tsa D1 le D2 dopamine li kentse letsoho bokhoni ba dopamine ea pele ho ho baka ho khutla hape, leha bopaki bo le matla ho li-receptor tsa D1 (Ciccocioppo et al. 2001; Li-capriles et al. 2003; Sanchez et al. 2003; Letsatsi le Rebec 2005). Ehlile, ho tsamaisa koae ka kotlolloho ka kotloloho ho PL-mPFC ho tsosa koae hape (Park et al. 2002), mohlomong ka lebaka la thibelo ea phetiso ea dopamine (Komiskey et al. 1977).

Li-circuits tsa neural tse arabelang ho khutlela ho ho ts'oaroa ha cocaine li sa tsoa thetsoa ke litekanyetso tsa meriana ka ho ntlafatsa likarolo tsa kelello tsa discrete pele ho liteko tse khutlisetsang (McFarland le Kalivas 2001; McFarland et al. 2004; Bona 2005). PL-mPFC e fumanoe e le phoso bakeng sa ho khutlela koae ka koae, e bakiloe ke mefuta e mengata ea ts'usumetso e khutlisetsang maikutlo, ho kenyelletsa le lithahasello tsa kahare tsa koae, cocaine ka boeona, le khatello (McFarland le Kalivas 2001; Li-capriles et al. 2003; McLaughlin le Bona 2003; McFarland et al. 2004; Di Pietro et al. 2006; empa bona Di Ciano et al. 2007). Kahoo, ho kenella ha li-inactivator tsa pharmacological kapa dopamine antagonists ho PL-mPFC ho lebisa ho fokotseng khatello ea cocaine nakong ea teko ea ho khutla. Haufinyane tjena, ho qaptjoa ha PL-mPFC ho boetse ho fumanoe ho fokotsa ho khutla hoa heroin e susumetsoang ke li-heroine tse tsamaeang ka maoto le heroin ka boeona (LaLumiere le Kalivas 2008; Roger et al. 2008; empa bona Schmidt et al. 2005). Boholo ba lithuto tsena bo fana ka maikutlo a hore PL-mPFC e emetse node ea ho qetela e tloaelehileng potolohong e khutlelang hape ea cocaine le heroin. Kahoo, joalo ka karolo ea PL-mPFC ho tšabo, PL-mPFC le eona e ts'ehetsa maikutlo a hau a boits'oaro ba ho batla lithethefatsi (Feie. 1).

Ka lebaka la karolo ea eona e khothalletsoang ea inhibitory, inactivation ea IL-mPFC e lokela ho baka khatello e matla ea koae ka mor'a ho timela. Sena, leha ho le joalo, ha se bonoe lithutong tse fetileng (McFarland le Kalivas 2001; Li-capriles et al. 2003; Fuchs et al. 2005; McLaughlin le Floresco 2007; Koya et al. 2008). Ho na le mabaka a mabeli a ka bakang sena. Ea pele ke hore IL-mPFC hangata e ne e sa sebetsoa pele e fana ka ts'usumetso e 'ngoe e khutlisetsang morao, e hlahisang litekanyo tse phahameng tsa ho batla koae, tseo ho ka bang thata ho li fumana tsa cocaine (ke hore, siling). Ea bobeli ke hore likhechana tse entsoeng ka maiketsetso tse tsamaisitsoeng ka koae ea koae ha lia ka tsa hlakoloa pele ho teko ea IL-mPFC; ka hona, ho felisoa ha Pavlovian ho ne ho sa phetheha (Li-capriles et al. 2003; Koya et al. 2008). Haeba IL-mPFC e sa sebetse kamora ho felisoa ha koae kapa ho ts'oana le heroine, ho na le khutlo e matla ea ho batla lithethefatsi, ho tsamaisana le karolo e thibelang sebopeho sena (Ovari le Leri 2008; Peters et al. 2008a,b). Ho feta moo, pharmacologic e susumetsang IL-mPFC pele ho tlhahlobo ea bocha e fokotsa boemo ba ho khutla ho itseng (Peters et al. 2008a; Setšoantšo sa 2B), e hohelang hape IL-mPFC ho hatella ho batla lithethefatsi. Ka kopanelo, bopaki bo fumanehang bo fana ka maikutlo a hore PL-IL e fana ka sesebelisoa sa ho itlhahisa se batlang se etselitsoe lithethefatsi, joalo ka ha li etsa tšabo e nang le boemo, haholoholo kamora ho timela (Lifeiga. 1, 2).

Liphetho tsa pele tse fetolang takatso ea lithethefatsi

Joalo ka ha likhokahano tse ikhethileng tsa pele-li-amygdala li ts'ehetsa switch ea ha motho a e-na le tšabo e nang le ts'ebeliso ea eona, ts'ebetso ea likhokahanyo tsa pele-tse bokellanang li ts'ehetsa sesebelisoa sa ho ts'oara koae. Nucleus accumbens konokono (konokono) e amohela mohopolo ka kotloloho ho tsoa ho PL-mPFC, athe khetla ea nucleus e bokellisang (khetla) e fumana phetoho haholo-holo ho tsoa ho IL-mPFC (Sesack et al. 1989; Brog et al. 1993; Voorn et al. 2004). Glutamate e lokollotsoeng ho PL-mPFC kahare ho lisosa tsa mantlha e baka hape koae le heroin (McFarland et al. 2003, 2004; LaLumiere le Kalivas 2008; Feie. 3) ka phetiso e tsamaeang le AMPA (Cornish and Kalivas 2000; Park et al. 2002; LaLumiere le Kalivas 2008). Morero oa IL-mPFC ho khetla, ka lehlakoreng le leng, o hlohlelletsa ho felisoa hoa koae, joalo ka ha ho koaloa ha tsela ena kamora ho timela ho khutlisetsang motsoako oa cocaine o batlang o hopotsang se bonoeng ka IL-mPFC inactivation (Peters et al. 2008a). Ntle le moo, ha ts'enyeho e ntse e tsoela pele, polelo ea khetla ea GluR1 subunit ea AMPA receptor ea eketseha, empa polelo ea mantlha ha e (Sutton et al. 2003). Polelo ea Shell ea GluR1 e lumellana hantle le boemo ba ho felisoa ha boitšoaro le hampe ka ho khutlisetsoa morao hoa cue-induction (Sutton et al. 2003). Kahoo, IL-mPFC ke karolo ea tlatsetso ea glutamatergic ho khetla e kanna ea ikarabella ho supa pheletso (Feie. 3).

Ka bobeli konokono le khetla li romela likhakanyo tsa GABAergic ho ventral pallidum, e laolang tlhahiso ea makoloi e hlokahalang bakeng sa ho batla lithethefatsi (Walaas le Fonnum 1979; Zahm le Heimer 1990; Heimer et al. 1991; Kalivas et al. 1999). Li-agonists tsa GABA tse kentsoeng ka har'a pallidum ea ventralum li fokotsa ho batla koae (McFarland le Kalivas 2001), le maemong a mang qholotso (Mogenson le Nielsen 1983; Hook le Kalivas 1995). Kahoo, projeke ea GABAergic e tsoang ho li-drabens ho ea ho pallidum e ka lebelloa ho hatella ho batla lithethefatsi. Sena se lumellana le thibelo ea lithethefatsi ea IL-mPFC e sebelisanang le lithethefatsi kamora ho felisoa, empa ha e tsamaellane le ts'ebetso e kopanetsoeng ea PL-mPFC ea ho batla lithethefatsi. Ts'ebetso ea ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi ka mantlha e ka kenyelletsa neuropeptide enkephalin. Mediiny spiny neurons e qala ho tsoa mantlha ho isa pallidum Express enkephalin (Zahm et al. 1985), eo, ha e lokolloa nakong ea ho thunya khafetsa, e ka tsosang peptidal μ opiod receptors (Waldhoer et al. 2004) ho baka phokotso ea maemo a GABA a lehae le ho fokotsa thibelo kahare ho pallidum (Kalivas et al. 2001; Schroeder le Schneider 2002). Ka 'nete, ho fokotseha ho itšetlehileng ka i opiod-gabe ea pallidal GABA hoa hlokahala bakeng sa ho khutla hape ka koae (Tang et al. 2005), phello e kanna ea kopanngoa ka ho lokolloa ha enkephalin tseleng ea bokellaneng ea pholeidal.Torregrossa et al. 2008). Ka hona, merero ea PL-mPFC ho tloha mantlha ho ea ho pallidum e ka ts'ebetsa ka mokhoa o ikemiselitseng ho batla lithethefatsi.

Caveats ho ea mohlala

Le ha mohlala oa rona o fana ka maikutlo a ho potoloha lits'oants'o tsa tšilafalo bakeng sa tšabo le bokhoba bo kahare ho cortex ea pele le karohano lits'ebetsong tse latelang tsa molatsoana tse ikarabellang bakeng sa ho hlahisa e 'ngoe ea boits'oaro bona, phapang ena e kanna ea fapana ka tsela eo re nahanang ka eona. Ntle le polelo ea tšabo e nang le maemo, amygdala le eona e ka bapala karolo ea polelo ea ho batla lithethefatsi tse nang le maemo. Ketsahalong ea BA ke karolo ea bohlokoa ea potoloho e kentsoeng litabeng tsa lithethefatsi tse bakoang ke takatso ea lithethefatsi (Kantak et al. 2002; McLaughlin le Bona 2003). Sena se ka rehelloa ka karolo e 'ngoe ka likhokahano tse khutlisetsang lipakeng tsa PL-mPFC le BA, le lipalo tse tsoang ho BA ka kotloloho ho isa mantlha (Di Ciano le Everitt 2004; Fuchs et al. 2007). Kahoo, bonyane bakeng sa ho batla lithethefatsi tse bakoang ke cue, ho bonahala ho na le karolo e kholo ea karolo ea morero ho tloha PL-mPFC ho BA ho qala ts'abo le ho batla lithethefatsi (Feie. 3). Habohlokoa, CE ea amygdala e boetse e khona ho qala ho batla lithethefatsi, haholo-holo bakeng sa ho khutlisetsoa khatello ea kelello (Erb et al. 2001; Leri et al. 2002; McFarland et al. 2004). Kahoo, tlhahiso e ntlafalitsoeng ea CE e kanna ea ba mochini o tloaelehileng oa ho qala ts'abo le boits'oaro ba ho batla lithethefatsi.

Ntle le karolo ea eona Phatlalatsong ea boitšoaro ba ho batla lithethefatsi, li-nucleus tse bokellanang li kanna tsa kenya letsoho pontšong ea tšabo. Mohlala, ho qaptjoa ha k'hemik'hale ka khetla ho lekane ho etsa hore ho qojoe le ho itšireletsa ka boitšoaro boits'oaro bo ts'oereng litlamong (Reynolds le Berridge 2001, 2002). Le ha hona ho fana ka maikutlo a hore ts'ebetso khetla e kanna ea thibela tšabo, ho na le bopaki bo bong bo fapaneng le ba hore lesapo la likhetla le fokolitse polelo ea tšabo (Jongen-Relo et al. 2003). Leha ho le joalo, lingoliloeng li tsoakiloe, mohlomong ka lebaka la ho se tsotelle ka kakaretso bakeng sa khethollo ea mantlha ea likhetla le (Haralambous le Westbrook 1999; Schwienbacher et al. 2004; bakeng sa tlhahlobo, bona Levita et al. 2002). Boithuto ba nako e tlang boa hlokahala ho tseba hore na li-amygdala le li-accumbens li inehetse ka mokhoa o ikhethang ho bontša tšabo le ho batla lithethefatsi, ka ho latellana.

Psychology e tloaelehileng ea pele ea PTSD le bokhoba ba tahi?

Ho na le bopaki bo ntseng bo eketseha bo tšehetsang taba ea hore khatello ea khatello ea maikutlo ka mor'a ho sithabetsoa ke khatello ea maikutlo (post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)) e tsamaisana le ho timela ho felisang. Lithutong tsa ho nahana ka batho, tsona ka bobeli (Milad et al. 2005) le tšebetso (Phelps et al. 2004; Kalisch et al. 2006; Milad et al. 2007b) ea ventral mPFC (vmPFC) lumellana hantle le ho timela ha phetoho. Bakuli ba PTSD ba bonts'a mesebetsi e fokotsehileng ka har'a vmPFC ha ba fuoa likhopotso tse bohloko (Bremner et al. 1999; Shin et al. 2004; Phan et al. 2006), ho fana ka maikutlo a hore vmPFC ho batho e anana le IL-mPFC boteng. Ebile, haufinyane ho bonts'itsoe hore bakuli ba PTSD ha ba na phetheho ka ho hopoleha ho felisoa (Milad et al. 2008). Ho sitoa ho kenya tšebetsong libaka tsena ho tšehetsa khopolo-taba ea hore PTSD e tsoa ho ho felisoa hoa ho felisoa ka lebaka la ho sitoa ho kenya ts'ebetso ea vmPFC-off tšabo (Feie. 4). Hape ho ka etsahala hore PTSD e etsahale ho tloha ho sesebelisoa se feteletseng, ha botenya le ts'ebetso ea dorsal anterior cingulate (dACC) cortex, homolog e sebetsang ea rat PL-mPFC, e lumellana le polelo ea tšabo (Milad et al. 2007a; Feie. 4).

Setšoantšo sa 4. 

Libuka tsa mahae tsa batho tsa libaka tse litsoeng pele ho tsona tse fetolang tšabo le bokhoba. Matsoa a matala a limela a emela libaka tsa dACC tsa motho tse amanang le tšabo, joalo ka ha ho hlahlojoa ke fMRI (Phelps et al. 2004; Milad et al. 2007a). Matsoho a maputsoa a emela libaka tseo batho ba lemaletseng joala ka tsona a li kopantseng le takatso ea koae ka mor'a ho pepesetsoa litheko tse amanang le koae, joalo ka ha li hlahlojoa ke FMRI (Garavan et al. 2000) kapa 'mapa oa PET oa phallo ea mali a tsoang khubung e sebelisang 15Metsi a nang le mabitsoNgaka ea bana et al. 1999). Matheba a mafubelu a bontša libaka tse haufi tsa vmPFC tse amanang le tšabo ea ho fela, joalo ka ha ho lekiloe ke fMRI (Phelps et al. 2004; Kalisch et al. 2006; Milad et al. 2007b). Letheba la lamunu le emela vmPFC e tšoanang lithutong tse lemaletseng. Setereke sena ha se sa na thuso, joalo ka ha se hlahlojoa ke 'mapa oa metaboliki oa PET ka 2-deoxyglucose, nakong ea litabatabelo tsa koae, a fana ka maikutlo a ho se atlehe.Bonson et al. 2002). Ka kopanelo, lithuto tsena li fana ka maikutlo a hore vmPFC ena ke ntho ea tlhaho ho sebetsana le litaba tsa IL, athe libaka tse qalang tsa DACC li rarahane ho sebetsana le lefu la limela. (Setšoantšo sa boko ba MRI se kopitsoa ka tumello e tsoang ho software ea BrainVoyager Brain Tutor, e ngotsoeng ke Brain Innovation BV, Maastricht, Netherlands.)

Ka mokhoa o makatsang, batho ba lemaletseng lithethefatsi ho bonahala ba na le bothata bo fetelletseng ba ho batla lithethefatsi. Mefuta e amanang le cocoaine e etsa hore dACC e lemale (Grant et al. 1996; Ngaka ea bana et al. 1999; Garavan et al. 2000), mme ts'ebetso ena e lumellana hantle le litekanyetso tse ikhethileng tsa litakatso tsa koae (Ngaka ea bana et al. 1999; Feie. 4). Ka hona, tsena "lithethefatsi" libakeng tse e ka ba tse khahlisang ho PL-mPFC lithutong tse ngata tsa ho khutla hoa koae. Kannete libaka tsena li na le tšibollo ea maiketsetso e nang le litoeba tsa PL-mPFC (Ongür le Price 2000; Stefanacci le Amaral 2002). Monyetla oa hore "lithethefatsi tsena" libakeng tse fetang le "tšabo" libakeng tse ling o khothaletsoa ke ho bona hore ho pepesoa ke likotsi tse amanang le ho sithabela ho bakuli ba PTSD ba nang le ts'ebeliso ea ntho e thehiloeng ka har'a comorbid ho baka takatso ea "cocaine" (Kofi le al. 2002).

Ntle le ts'ebetso ena e khothalletsoang ke koae, dacC e bonts'a ho ata ha metabolism pele ho nako ea ho phomola nakong ea nako ea ho phomola (Goldstein le Volkow 2002). Boithuto ho litšoene bo bonts'a hore libaka tse ngata haholo tsa "cortex" ea pele ke tsona tsa pele ho bonts'a bofokoli ba metabolism kamora ho pepesetsoa ha koae.Porrino le Lyons 2000; Porrino et al. 2007). Kahoo, phetoho ea mantlha ea ho batla koae e ka fokotsoa ke tšebeliso ea koae. Leha ho le joalo, lithuto tsa nako e tlang li ea hlokahala ho bona hore na batho ba lemaletseng lithethefatsi ha ba na tšebeliso ea metabolism e itekanetseng le pele ba e sebelisa.

Bakhoba ba batho ba tšoana le bakuli ba nang le lesapo la vmPFC mehatong e itseng ea taolo ea thibelo ea kelello (Bechara 2005). Lihlopheng tsena ka bobeli li tšoauoa ka mofuta oa boitšoaro bo susumetsoang ka lebaka la ho se khone ho fumana lipono tse mpe tse amanang le ho etsa liqeto tse kotsi (Bechara et al. 1996; Bechara le Damasio 2002). Ho khahlisang, ho senya ka mokhoa o hlakileng oa vmPFC ho hlokometsoe ho batho ba lemaletseng lithethefatsi tse pepesitsoeng litlamong tse amanang le koae ba sebelisang positron emission tomography (PET) ea metabolism ea glucose (Bonson et al. 2002). Lintlha tsena li fana ka maikutlo a hore batho ba lemaletseng lithethefatsi ba na le bothata ba ho koala sekheo se se nang phepelo ho vmPFC, e ba fa monyetla oa hore ba boele ba fumanehe hape ka lebaka la lintlha tse amanang le koae. Kahoo, re fana ka maikutlo a hore bokhoba ba tahi, joalo ka mathata a ho tšoenyeha, bo ka fella ka karolo ho tsoa taolong ea ho timela.

Comorbidity ea ho tšoenyeha le bokhoba ba tahi

Tšebelisano lipakeng tsa liserekisi bakeng sa tšabo le bokhoba bo lumellana le liphetho tsa boitšoaro. Tšebeliso ea koae ka nako e telele e amahanngoa le maikutlo a eketsehileng a ho tšoenyeha, keketseho e imeneng ka makhetlo a mararo ho isa ho e mene ea litlhaselo tsa ts'abo, le ho hlonama ka PTSD (Cox et al. 1990; Wasserman et al. 1997; O'Brien et al. 2005). Haeba lithuto li hlahlojoa pele bakeng sa ho ba le bokuli ba ho tšoenyeha, menyetla ea tšebeliso ea koae e eketseha, le kamora ho feto-fetoha ha mekhoa ea sechaba le likotsi tse ling tsa kelello (Goodwin et al. 2002; Sareen et al. 2006).

Psychology ea mantlha e hlahang ka pele ho kotloloho ea 'mele e ka etsa hore motho a be le mathata a ho tšoenyeha le ho lemalla. Ka lebaka la hore lesapo la vmPFC le baka tšusumetso ea boitšoaro ho batho le litoeba (Bechara et al. 1994; Davidson et al. 2000; Best et al. 2002; Chudasama et al. 2003), ts'ebetso ea vmPFC e fokotsehileng e ka fella ka kotsi e kholo ea phenotype. Ho ts'ehetsa sena, ho bontšitsoe hore bakuli ba PTSD (Chemtob et al. 1994; Aidman le Kollaras-Mitsinikos 2006; Dileo et al. 2008le bokhoba ba lithethefatsi (Bechara le Vander 2005; Verdejo-Garcia et al. 2007) li tšoauoa ka mokhoa o sa tsitsang oa phenotype. Leha ho le joalo, lithuto tse telele tse mabapi le boits'oaro pele ho tlhaiso ea lits'oants'o li hlokahala ho tseba hore na mokhoa ona o susumetsang o bonahala pele ho nts'etsopele ea PTSD.

Litla-morao tsa ts'ebetso ea pele-pele li ka hlaha liphihlelong tse sithabetsang tsa bophelo, ho kenyelletsa le koluoa, ka hona li rera batho ho nts'etsapele PTSD le bokhoba ba tahi (Anderson et al. 2000; Weber le Reynolds 2004; Hyman et al. 2007). Ho na le bopaki ba hore lefu la sethoathoa le sa le lesea le ho bakuli ba PTSD ba lilemong tsa bocha.Caffo le Belaise 2003). Litšitšili, khatello ea bophelo ba pele le khatello ea ho ba motho ea moholo li ka lebisa ho fokola kamellong ea tšabo (Garcia et al. 2008; Matsumoto et al. 2008), mohlomong ka lebaka la ho qhaloa ha dendritic ho IL-mPFC (Izquierdo et al. 2006). Ka mokhoa o ts'oanang, khatello ea maikutlo e baka ho khutla hoa mefuta ea liphoofolo tse sebelisang lithethefatsi hampe le bathong (Shaham et al. 2000; Sinha et al. 2006).

Litlamorao tsa ho pepesetsoa khatello ea maikutlo mosebetsing o tlang pele ho nako li ka sebelisana le lintlha tsa liphatsa tsa lefutso ho hlahisa mofuta oa phenotype. Mohlala, boteng ba dopamine D2 receptor A1 allele e amahanngoa le ho eketseha ha tloaelo ho PTSD (Comings et al. 1996) le tlhekefetso ea koae (Noble et al. 1993; Comings et al. 1994). Ho ba teng ha allele ena ho fella ka hore maemo a boko a fokotsehile a li-receptor tsa D2 (Noble 2000), e re hopotsang bofokoli bo fumanoang ho dopamine D2 receptor e tlamang e bonoang ho bokhoba ba batho (Volkow et al. 2002). Phokotso e kholo ho li-receptor tsa D2 tsa striatal li boetse li hokahantsoe le likotsi tse kholo tsa ho phomola metabolism ea pele ho lithethefatsi (Volkow et al. 1993). Leha ho tlameha ho tsebisoe hore na liphoso tsena tsa D2 ke tsona sesosa kapa sesosa sa bokhoba, liphumano li tsamaellana le qeto e ka bang teng ea liphatsa tsa lefutso bakeng sa nts'etsopele ea bokhoba ba tahi (Noble et al. 1997).

Ho alafa lithethefatsi joalo ka bahlaseluoa ba likotsi

Lijana tse ntlafatsang ho sa feleng hoa vmPFC e ka ba kalafo e sebetsang bakeng sa mathata a hlahang ho hloleha ho timela. Ho fihla joale, katleho e kholo ka ho fetisisa ea bongaka e fihlelletsoe ka d-cycloserine (DCS), agonist e sa lekanyetsoang ea NMDA receptor, e fanoa ka kopanelo le bongaka ba ho hlahisa kalafo bakeng sa kalafo ea mathata a ho tšoenyeha. DCS e bontšitsoe ho thusa ho felisoa ha acrophobia (Ressler et al. 2004; Davis et al. 2006), bokuli ba matšoenyeho sechabeng (Hofmann et al. 2006), le bokuli bo potelletseng (Kushner et al. 2007; Wilhelm et al. 2008). Ke haufinyane tjena DCS e ntseng e etsoa lipatlisiso e le kalafo e ka khonehang bakeng sa ho lemalla.Brady et al. 2008), empa liphuputso tsa litoeba li ts'ehetsa bokhoni ba eona ba ho tsamaisa ho felisoa ha batho ba batlang koae ka mokhoa o amohelehileng oa moputso oa lithethefatsi (Botreau et al. 2006; Paolone et al. 2008). Ha DCS ho nahanoa hore e sebetsa ho amygdala (Ledgerwood et al. 2003), e ka sebetsa hape ho vmPFC, moo ho kopantseng khokahano e itšetlehileng ka NMDA (Burgos-Robles et al. 2007; Sotres-Bayon et al. 2008).

Ka mokhoa o tšoanang, motho a ka nahana ho phekola batho ba sithabetseng maikutlo joalo ka ba lemaletseng lithethefatsi. Lintlha tsa morao-rao li bontša hore N-acetylcysteine, e sebelisang matla a morao-rao ea cystine e ka sebetsang hantle ho phekola ho itšetleha ka koae (cocaine)LaRowe et al. 2007). Setlhare sena se nahanoa hore se sebetsa ka ho khutlisetsa maemo a glutamate ka har'a li-bokellets tsa litlatsetso tse thehiloeng ho data ho tsoa lithutong tsa litoeba (Baker et al. 2003). Ho itlhokomela k'hok'heine ho fokotsa ho putlama ha linale ka ho hlahisa phokotso e sa feleng ea phapanyetsano ea cystine-glutamate, le N-acetylcysteine ​​e tsosolosa tšebetso ea exchanger (Baker et al. 2003; Madayag et al. 2007). Ho tsosolosoa ha glutamate ea extracellular ka N-acetylcysteine ​​e thibela ho khutlisetsoa hape mehlaleng ea liphoofolo ka ho susumetsa sehlopha sa II se tsamaisang taolo ea litheko tsa matla a lokolloang (mGluR2 / 3) (Moran et al. 2005). Habohlokoa, li-agonists tsa mGluR2 / 3 li fokotsa ho tšoenyeha ka bobeli le ho khutlisetsoa ha lithethefatsi tse batlang litheko (Schoepp et al. 2003; Baptista et al. 2004; Peters le Kalivas 2006), e ts'ehetsang khokahano ea glutamatergic lipakeng tsa tšabo le ho khutla hape. Ho feta moo, N-acetylcysteine ​​e khona ho fokotsa litakatso tse hlahisoang ke lithahasello tse amanang le koae ho batho (LaRowe et al. 2007), le mosebetsi o susumetsoang ke cue cortex (LaRowe et al. 2005). Mokhoa o joalo oa "ho itlhahisa ka mokhoa o nyarosang" o ka natefisa tahlehelo ea bokhopo e bakoang ke IL-mPFC e sa sebetseng, ka ho etsa joalo ho thibela khatello ea maikutlo le ho batla lithethefatsi.

Ho leka mohlala

Bokhoba ba tahi bo amohetse e le bokuli ba ho ithuta le ho hopola (Kelley 2004; Hyman 2005). Leha ho le joalo, ke liphuputso tse fokolang tse bapileng ka kotloloho mohopolo oa morao-rao oa ho laola lintho tse sa fetoheng, tse kang tse fumanoeng ka maemo a ts'abo a Pavlovian, mohopolo o sa lokang oa ho hloka ts'ebetso, joalo ka o fumanoang mefuteng ea taolo ea lithethefatsi. Lithuto tsa nako e tlang li lokela ho etsoa ho leka bonnete ba mofuta oa "potry" oo re o rerileng (Feie. 3) hammoho le ho khetholla likarolo tse ling tsa potoloho, ebang ke lintlha tsa phapanyetsano kapa phapang bakeng sa tšabo le bokhoba.

Mokhoa o mong o neng o ka ba molemo ke ho leka tšabo le maemo a batlang ts'ebetso ea lithethefatsi ho rateng e le 'ngoe. Burke et al. (2006) o sebelisitse mokhoa o ts'oanang oa ho lekola litlamorao tsa ho pepesetsoa hoa koae ka nako e telele kamora ho felloa ke ts'abo mme o fumane hore likhoto tse pepesitsoeng ke koae li tima butle ho feta taolo ea saline. Bafuputsi ba phethile ka hore li-curoine tse kentsoeng ke koae ka cortex ea pele kapa sepheo sa eona se atlehileng se sitisitse tšitiso ea boitšoaro pele. Ona ke mohopolo o khahlisang o ntseng o lokela ho hlahlojoa. Mohlala, cocaine e eketsa polelo ea activator ea protheine ea G-protein signaling 3 (AGS3) ho cortex ea pele, le ho khutlisa neuroadaptation ena e hlahisitsoeng ke koae e fokotsa ho batla k'hok'heine ka litekong tse tlang tsa ho khutla hape (Bowers et al. 2004). E ka ba ho khahlisang haeba ho khutlisa keketseho ena e susumetsoang ke koae ka koketso ea pele ea AGS3 ho ne ho lekane ho khahlisa liphokoletsi ka tšabo ea ho tšaba e bonoang ho Burke et al. (2006) ho ithuta. Teko e joalo e ka hare ho taba ea ts'abo le ho batla lithethefatsi e lokela ho kopantsoe le mekhoa ea lesion, lithuto tsa polelo ea c-fos, le lirekoto tsa unit e le 'ngoe ho lekola ho atoloha ha lipotoloho tse felisang.

Haufinyane, sistimi ea cannabinoid e amohetse tlhokomelo bakeng sa karolo ea eona ho feliseng tšabo (Marsicano et al. 2002; Lin et al. 2008). Li-agonists tsa CB1 cannabinoid receptor, ha li-microinfuse li kenella cortex ea pele, li thusa ho timela ha tšabo, athe bahanyetsi ba CB1 ba sebelisitse kahare ho naha kahare ho tšenyo ea tšohanyetso ea cortex.Lin et al. 2008). Litla-morao tsena li tšoana le tsa tsamaiso ea methapo ea liemeli tsa CB1 mabapi le ho timela hoa tšabo (Marsicano et al. 2002; Chhatwal et al. 2005; Pamplona et al. 2006). Le ha litlamorao tsa baemeli ba CB1 mabapi le ho felisoa ha ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi li sa ithutoe ka mokhoa o hlakileng, litlamorao tsa bona tsa ho khutlisetsoa hoa lithethefatsi li hanana le tse fumanoeng pejana mabapi le ho timela hoa tšabo. Ka mantsoe a mang, li-agonists tsa CB1 li laetsoe ka mokhoa o hlophisetsang ho khutlisetsoa hoa koae le ho ts'oana le heroin, athe bahanyetsi ba CB1 ba thibela ho khutlisetsoa hoa ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi (De Vries et al. 2001, 2003). Bakeng sa ho batla ha heroine, litlamorao tsena li hlahisitsoe sebakeng sa mantlha le IL-mPFC (Alvarez-Jaimes et al. 2008). Ka hona, litlamorao tsena tsa baemeli ba CB1 mabapi le ho batla lithethefatsi li khahlanong le litlamorao tsa bona ho feliseng tšabo. Boithuto ba nako e tlang bo ea hlokahala ho tseba hore na sesosa sa motheo se teng lipapatsong tsena ketsahalong eo.

Leha re rerile hore sephetho sa ho felisoa, bonyane ka karolo e itseng, ho tsoa ketsong e eketsehang ka har'a potoloho ea inhibitory, ho timela ho ka boela ha etsahala ka ts'ebetso e fokotsehileng ka har'a potoloho e thabisang. Ho na le bopaki ba hore li-circuits tsa GABAergic inhibitory tse kahare ho PL-mPFC li mafolofolo lenaneong la pele la ho felisoa ha koae (cocaine)Miller le Marshall 2004). Ts'oaetso ena ho PL-mPFC e kanna ea hlokahala ho lumella ts'ebetso ho IL-mPFC ho tsamaisa thuto ea ho timela. Pl-mPFC le IL-mPFC ea litoeba, le maqhubu a lapeng a amanang le litšoene le batho, ke libaka tse hokahaneng.Ongür le Price 2000; Chiba et al. 2001; Jones et al. 2005). Boithuto ba nako e tlang boa hlokahala ho bona hore na ho thibella ho pheta-pheta ho etsahala lipakeng tsa liteishene tsa mPFC tse hlahisang maikutlo, kapa hore na PL-mPFC le IL-mPFC lia qothisana lehlokoa bakeng sa taolo ea boitšoaro. Pharmacotherapeutics e fetotsang botsitso ba ts'ebetso ho kenella ts'ebetsong ea vmPFC e kopantsoeng le deactivation ea dACC e tla ba likhetho tse ntle bakeng sa kalafo ea ho tšoenyeha le ho lemalla. Mohlomong linonyana tse peli tsa matšoenyeho le bokhoba li ka bolaoa ka lejoe le le leng pele.

lumela hore baa fokola

Patlisiso e hlalositsoeng phetolelong ena e tšehelitsoe ke lithuso tsa NIH MH05383 ho JP, DA012513 le DA005369 ho PWK, le MH058883 le MH081975 ho GJQ

Mongolo o botlaaseng ba leqephe

References

    1. Aidman, EV,
    2. Kollaras-Mitsinikos, L.

    (2006) Litakatso tsa botho mothong o boletsoeng esale pele ka khatello ea khatello ea maikutlo ka mor'a ho pepa. Psychol. Rep. 99: 569-580.

    1. Alvarez-Jaimes, L.,
    2. Polis, mimi ,.
    3. Parsons, LH

    (2008) Tlhokomeliso ea boitšoaro bo batlang ba cue-e susumetsang ba heroine ka li-cannabinoid CB1 antagonist infusions ka har'a nucleus accumbens mantlha le preortalal cortex, empa eseng basolateral amygdala. Neuropsychopharmacology 33: 2483-2493.

    1. Anderson, SW,
    2. Damasio, H.,
    3. Tranel, D.,
    4. Damasio, AR

    (2000) Tloaelo ea nako e telele ea tšenyo ea pele ea cortex e fumanoeng bongoaneng. Dev. Neuropsychol. 18: 281-296.

    1. Anglada-Figueroa, D.,
    2. Quirk, GJ

    (2005) Methapo ea basal amygdala block expression ea maemo a ts'abo empa e sa timele. J. Neurosci. 25: 9680-9685.

    1. Baeg, EH,
    2. Kim, YB,
    3. Jang, J.,
    4. Kim, HT,
    5. Mook-Jung, I ,.
    6. Jung, MW

    (2001) Li-spiking tse potlakileng tsa spiking le li-spiking tsa spiking tse tloaelehileng tsa tšabo tse nang le maemo a tšabo setulong sa cortex ea medial pele. Cereb. Cortex 11: 441-451.

    1. Baker, DA,
    2. McFarland, K.,
    3. Lake, RW,
    4. Shen, H.,
    5. Tang, XC,
    6. Toda, S.,
    7. Kalivas, PW

    (2003) Neuroadaptations phapanyetsanong ea cystine-glutamate underlie cocaine e khutla. Nat. Neurosci. 6: 743-749.

    1. Baptista, MA,
    2. Martin-Fardon, R.,
    3. Weiss, F.

    (2004) Litlamorao tse khahlisang tsa metabotropic glutamate 2 / 3 receptor agonist LY379268 mabapi le ho iphetetsa ha thepa le ts'ebeliso ea mantlha ea mantlha: Ho bapisoa pakeng tsa koae le ntho e tloaelehileng e matlafalitsoeng. J. Neurosci. 24: 4723-4727.

    1. Bechara, A.

    (2005) Ho nka liqeto, taolo le ho lahleheloa ke matla ho hanela lithethefatsi: Pono ea methapo. Nat. Neurosci. 8: 1458-1463.

    1. Bechara, A.,
    2. Damasio, H.

    (2002) Ho nka liqeto le ho lemalla Neuropsychologia 40: 1675-1689.

    1. Bechara, A.,
    2. Vander, LM

    (2005) Ho etsa liqeto le ho susumetsa taolo kamora ho tsoa likotsi tsa lobe ka pele. Borr. Opin. Neurol. 18: 734-739.

    1. Bechara, A.,
    2. Damasio, AR,
    3. Damasio, H.,
    4. Anderson, SW

    (1994) Boikemisetso ho litlamorao tse tlang kamora ho senyeha hoa cortex ea motho pele. Temoho 50: 7-15.

    1. Bechara, A.,
    2. Tranel, D.,
    3. Damasio, H.,
    4. Damasio, AR

    (1996) Ho sitoa ho araba ka boikemelo ho liphetho tse lebelletsoeng tsa nako e tlang kamora ho senyeha ha cortex ea pele. Cereb. Cortex 6: 215-225.

    1. Berretta, S.,
    2. Pantazopoulos, H.,
    3. Caldera, M.,
    4. Pantazopoulos, P.,
    5. Pare, D.

    (2005) ts'ebetso ea infralimbic cortex e eketsa polelo ea c-fos ho li-neuron tse kopaneng tsa amygdala. Khopolo-taba 132: 943-953.

    1. Molemo ka ho fetisisa, M.,
    2. Williams, JM,
    3. Coccaro, EF

    (2002) Bopaki ba potoloho e sa sebetseng hantle ea mantlha ho bakuli ba nang le bothata bo sa tsotelleng. Proc. Natl. Acad. Saense 99: 8448-8453.

    1. Bissiere, S.,
    2. Plachta, N.,
    3. Hoyer, D.,
    4. McAllister, KH,
    5. Olpe, HR,
    6. Mohau, AA,
    7. Cryan, JF

    (2008) Rostral anterior cingrate cortex modulates e sebetsa hantle ha ho ithuta ho tšoha ho itšetlehileng ka amygdala. Biol. Psychiatry 63: 821-831.

    1. Blair, HT,
    2. Schafe, GE,
    3. Bauer, EP,
    4. Rodrigues, SM, Hotelek
    5. LeDoux, JE

    (2001) Synaptic polasetiki ho amygdala ea morao-rao: Motsoako oa selefouno oa boemo ba tšabo. Ithute. Mem. 8: 229-242.

    1. Blum, S.,
    2. Hebert, AE,
    3. Dash, PK

    (2006) Karolo bakeng sa cortex ea pele ho likhopotso tsa mehopolo ea morao-rao le ea khale. Neuroreport 17: 341-344.

    1. Bonson, KR,
    2. Grant, SJ,
    3. Contoreggi, CS,
    4. Lihokela, JM,
    5. Metcalfe, J.,
    6. Weyl, HL,
    7. Kurian, V.,
    8. Ernst, M.,
    9. London, ED

    (2002) Lits'ebetso tsa Neural le takatso ea koae e entsoeng ka cueine. Neuropsychopharmacology 26: 376-386.

    1. Botreau, F.,
    2. Paolone, G.,
    3. Stewart, J.

    (2006) d-Cycloserine e thusa ho felisoa ha sebaka se khethiloeng sa koae se nang le koae. Behav. Resin ea Boko. 172: 173-178.

    1. Bowers, MS,
    2. McFarland, K.,
    3. Lake, RW,
    4. Peterson, YK,
    5. Lapish, CC,
    6. Gregory, ML,
    7. Lanier, SM,
    8. Kalivas, PW

    (2004) activator of G protein signaling 3: Molebisi oa heke ea maikutlo a koae le ho ts'oara lithethefatsi. Neuron 42: 269-281.

    1. Brady, KT,
    2. McRae, AL,
    3. Saladin, ME,
    4. Moran, MM,
    5. Theko, KL

    (2008) (San Juan, Puerto Rico), The 70th Seboka sa selemo le selemo sa koleche mabapi le mathata a ho itšetleha ka lithethefatsi, d-Cycloserine le ho timela hoa koae.

    1. Bremner, JD,
    2. Staib, LH,
    3. Kaloupek, D.,
    4. Southwick, SM,
    5. Soufer, R.,
    6. Charney, DS

    (1999) Litlatsetso tsa Neural tsa ho pepesetsoa litšoantšo tse mahlonoko le molumo Vietnam o loants'a ma-veterane a nang le khatello ea kelello ea khatello ea maikutlo le ea posttraumatic: Patlron emission tomography. Biol. Psychiatry 45: 806-816.

    1. Brinley-Reed, M.,
    2. Mascagni, F.,
    3. McDonald, AJ

    (1995) Synaptology ea merero ea cortical ea pele ho bokhoni ba basolateral amygdala: Thutong ea microncopic ho rat. Neurosci. Lett. 202: 45-48.

    1. Brog, JS,
    2. Salyapongse, A.,
    3. Deutch, AY,
    4. Zahm, DS

    (1993) Lits'ebetso tse amanang le bolulo bo kopaneng ba mantlha le khetla karolong ea "accumbens" karolong ea "rat ventral striatum" J. Comp. Neurol. 338: 255-278.

    1. Burgos-Robles, A.,
    2. Vidal-Gonzalez, I,
    3. Sstrong, E.,
    4. Quirk, GJ

    (2007) Ho kopanya ho felisoa ha tšabo ho hloka ho phatloha ho itšetlehileng ka NMDA ho cortex ea ventromedial. Neuron 53: 871-880.

    1. Burgos-Robles, A.,
    2. Vidal-Gonzalez, I,
    3. Quirk, GJ

    (2009) Likarabo tse nang le maemo a tsitsitseng li-neuron tsa prelopic tsa pele ho nako li hokahanngoa le polelo ea tšabo le ho sitoa ho timela. J. Neurosci. (ka khatiso) ..

    1. Burke, KA,
    2. Franz, TM,
    3. Gugsa, N.,
    4. Schoenbaum, G.

    (2006) Phatlalatso ea koae pele e senya boemo ba tšabo. Ithute. Mem. 13: 416-421.

    1. Caffo, E.,
    2. Belaise, C.

    (2003) Likarolo tsa kelello tsa maqeba a bohloko ho bana le bacha. Ngoana ea lilemong tsa bocha. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 12: 493-535.

    1. Cammarota, M.,
    2. Bevilaqua, LR,
    3. Barros, DM,
    4. Vianna, MR,
    5. Izquierdo, LA,
    6. Medina, JH,
    7. Izquierdo, I.

    (2005) Ho khutlisa le ho fela ha mohopolo. Sele. Mol. Neurobiol. 25: 465-474.

    1. Litlhaku, N.,
    2. Rodaros, D.,
    3. Sorge, RE,
    4. Stewart, J.

    (2003) Karolo ea mokokotlo oa pele ho khatello ea maikutlo le khatello ea koae e nchafalitseng koae. Psychopharmacology 168: 66-74.

    1. Chemtob, CM,
    2. Hamada, RS,
    3. Roitblat, HL,
    4. Muraoka, My

    (1994) Khalefo, ho hloka botsitso le taolo ea khalefo ho amanang le khatello ea maikutlo ea kamora khatello ea maikutlo. J. Kopa. Clin. Psychol. 62: 827-832.

    1. Chhatwal, JP,
    2. Davis, M.,
    3. Maguschak, KA,
    4. Ressler, KJ

    (2005) Ho ntlafatsa cannabinoid neurotransuction ho eketsa ho felisoa hoa tšabo e nang le maemo. Neuropsychopharmacology 30: 516-524.

    1. Chiba, T.,
    2. Kayahara, T.,
    3. Nakano, K.

    (2001) Litabatabelo tse sebetsang tsa libaka tsa infralimbic le prelimbic tsa "cortex" tsa medial pele ho litšoene tsa mouoane, Macaca fuscata. Resin ea Boko. 888: 83-101.

    1. Ngoana, AR,
    2. Mozley, PD,
    3. McElgin, W.,
    4. Fitzgerald, J.,
    5. Reivich, M.,
    6. O'Brien, CP

    (1999) Ts'ebetso ea limbic nakong ea litakatso tsa cocaine tse susumetsang. Am. J. Psychiatry 156: 11-18.

    1. Chudasama, Y.,
    2. Passetti, F.,
    3. Rhode, SE,
    4. Lopian, D.,
    5. Desai, A.,
    6. Robbins, TW

    (2003) Likarolo tse sa lumellaneng tsa ts'ebetso ho 5-khetho ea serial reaction time task kamora maqeba a dorsal anterior cingate, infralimbic and orbitof Pambal cortex ho rat: Phapang e fapaneng le khethollo, ho hloka matla le ho qobelloa. Behav. Resin ea Boko. 146: 105-119.

    1. Ciccocioppo, R.,
    2. Sanna, PP,
    3. Weiss, F.

    (2001) Khokahano e boletsoeng esale pele ea Cocaine e etsa hore motho a batle mokhoa oa ho batla lithethefatsi le ho kenella ka hare ho likarolo tsa bokong ba maoto ka mor'a likhoeli tse ngata tsa ho khaotsa: Ho khutlisoa ke D1 bahanyetsi. Proc. Natl. Acad. Saense 98: 1976-1981.

    1. Kofi, SF,
    2. Saladin, ME,
    3. Drobes, DJ,
    4. Brady, KT,
    5. Dansky, BS,
    6. Kilpatrick, DG

    (2002) Ho sithabela maikutlo le khatello ea methapo ho batho ba nang le comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder le cocaine kapa joala joala. Tšebeliso ea Lithethefatsi e Tšepahala. 65: 115-127.

    1. Metsoako, DE,
    2. Muhleman, D.,
    3. Ahn, C.,
    4. Gysin, R.,
    5. Flanagan, SD

    (1994) Mofuta oa dopamine D2 receptor: Ntho e ka re thusang ka ho sebelisa lithethefatsi hampe. Tšebeliso ea Lithethefatsi e Tšepahala. 34: 175-180.

    1. Metsoako, DE,
    2. Muhleman, D.,
    3. Gysin, R.

    (1996) Dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) mofuta oa tloaelo ea ho tepella maikutlo le khatello ea maikutlo ka morao ho moo: Ho ithuta le ho pheta-pheta. Biol. Psychiatry 40: 368-372.

    1. Corcoran, KA,
    2. Quirk, GJ

    (2007) Ts'ebetso ho prelimbic cortex e hlokahala bakeng sa ho hlahisa maikutlo a ithutileng, empa eseng kahare, tšabo. J. Neurosci. 27: 840-844.

    1. Lakeland, JL,
    2. Kalivas, PW

    (2000) Phetisetso ea glutamate e ka har'a nucleus e bokellanang e khutlela mokhoeng oa ho lemalla koae. J. Neurosci. 20: RC89.

    1. Cox, BJ,
    2. Norton, GR,
    3. Swinson, RP,
    4. Endler, NS

    (1990) Tlhekefetso ea lithethefatsi le matšoenyeho a amanang le tšabo: Tlhahlobo e boima. Behav. Res. Ther. 28: 385-393.

    1. Davidson, RJ,
    2. Putnam, KM,
    3. Larson, CL

    (2000) Ho se sebetse hantle ho potolohileng maikutlo ho tsamaisang maikutlo - e ka bang pejana ea pefo. Science 289: 591-594.

    1. Davis, M.,
    2. Ressler, K.
    3. Rothbaum, BO,
    4. Richardson, R.

    (2006) Liphetho tsa d-cycloserine mabapi le ho timela: Phetolelo ho tloha mosebetsing oa pele le mosebetsi oa bongaka. Biol. Psychiatry 60: 369-375.

    1. Delgado, MR,
    2. Olsson, A.,
    3. Phelps, EA

    (2006) Ho eketsa mehlala ea liphoofolo ea maemo a ts'abo ho batho. Biol. Psychol. 73: 39-48.

    1. De Wit, H.,
    2. Stewart, J.

    (1981) Pheta-pheto ea karabelo e matlafalitsoeng ea koae ka hara lere. Psychopharmacology 75: 134-143.

    1. De Vries, TJ,
    2. Shaham, Y.,
    3. Homberg, JR,
    4. Crombag, H.,
    5. Schuurman, K.,
    6. Dieben, J.,
    7. Vanderschuren, LJ,
    8. Schoffelmeer, AN

    (2001) Sesebelisoa sa cannabinoid ho khutlisetsa ho batla koae. Nat. Moedi 7: 1151-1154.

    1. De Vries, TJ,
    2. Homberg, JR,
    3. Binnekade, R.,
    4. Raasø, H.,
    5. Schoffelmeer, AN

    (2003) Cannabinoid modulation ea thepa e matlafatsang le e susumetsang ea li-heroin le lithahasello tse amanang le heroine literekeng. Psychopharmacology 168: 164-169.

    1. Di Ciano, P.,
    2. Everitt, BJ

    (2004) Litšebelisano tse tobileng pakeng tsa amygdala ea basolateral le nucleus accumbens ea mantlha tlas'a boitšoaro bo batlang cocaine ka litoeba. J. Neurosci. 24: 7167-7173.

    1. Di Ciano, P.,
    2. Benham-Hermetz, J.,
    3. Fogg, AP,
    4. Osborne, GE

    (2007) Boikarabello ba prelimbic cortex ho fumaneha, ho fumana bocha kapa ho phehella ho arabela bakeng sa setsi se matlafatsoang ke lithethefatsi. Khopolo-taba 150: 291-298.

    1. Dileo, JF,
    2. Brewer, WJ,
    3. Hopwood, M.,
    4. Anderson, V.,
    5. Creamer, M.

    (2008) Ho khetholla ho hlaseloa ha litlolo, ho ba mabifi le ho hloka toka ho li-veteran tsa ntoa tse nang le khatello ea maikutlo ea morao-rao. Psychol. Med. 38: 523-531.

    1. Di Pietro, NC,
    2. Ntsu, YD,
    3. Kantak, KM

    (2006) Taolo ea cortine e itšetlehileng ka mohopolo ea pele ho taolo ea cocaine le boits'oaro bo khutlisetsang litulong. EUR. J. Neurosci. 24: 3285-3298.

    1. Epstein, DH,
    2. Preston, KL,
    3. Stewart, J.,
    4. Shaham, Y.

    (2006) Mabapi le mohlala oa ho khutla hape hoa lithethefatsi: Tlhahlobo ea bonnete ba ts'ebetso ea ho khutlisetsoa. Psychopharmacology 189: 1-16.

    1. Erb, S.,
    2. Salmaso, N.,
    3. Rodaros, D.,
    4. Stewart, J.

    (2001) Karolo bakeng sa tsela e nang le CRF e tsoang tseleng e bohareng ea amygdala ho ea phapusing ea "stria terminalis" pusong ea khatello ea maikutlo e bakiloeng ke khatello ea maikutlo ea koae e batloang ke litoeba. Psychopharmacology 158: 360-365.

    1. Fuchs, RA,
    2. Evans, KA,
    3. Ledford, CC,
    4. Parker, MP,
    5. Case, JM,
    6. Mehta, RH,
    7. Bona, RE

    (2005) Karolo ea "corsex" ea dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, basolateral amygdala, le dorsal hippocampus mabapi le ho khutlisetsoa kahare ha cocaine e batlang ho litoeba. Neuropsychopharmacology 30: 296-309.

    1. Fuchs, RA,
    2. Eaddy, JL,
    3. S, ZI,
    4. Bell, GH

    (2007) Tšebelisano ea amygdala ea basolateral le dorsal hippocampus le dorsomedial pre mapemaal cortex e laola maemo a lithethefatsi-a susumetsang ho khutlisetsoa ha koae ka koae. EUR. J. Neurosci. 26: 487-498.

    1. Fuster, JM

    . J. Neurocytol. 31: 373-385.

    1. Mabenyane, PL,
    2. Warner, TA,
    3. Jays, PR,
    4. Salway, P.,
    5. Bese, SJ

    (2005) Cortex ea pele ho thoteng: Morero oa libaka tse ikemetseng tsa likoloi, makoloi le litsi tsa maoto. J. Comp. Neurol. 492: 145-177.

    1. Garavan, H.,
    2. Hester, R.

    (2007) Karolo ea taolo ea kutloisiso ho itšetleha ka koae. Neuropsychol. Tšen. 17: 337-345.

    1. Garavan, H.,
    2. Pankiewicz, J.,
    3. Palesa, A.,
    4. Cho, JK,
    5. Sperry, L.,
    6. Ross, TJ,
    7. Salmeron, BJ,
    8. Risinger, R.,
    9. Kelley, D.,
    10. Stein, EA

    (2000) Takatso e matla ea koae e entsoeng ke cueine: Am. J. Psychiatry 157: 1789-1798.

    1. Garcia, R.,
    2. Spennato, G.,
    3. Nilsson-Todd, L.,
    4. Moreau, JL,
    5. Deschaux, O.

    (2008) Hippocampal low frequency frequency le khatello e matla ea maikutlo e tsitsitseng ka mokhoa o ts'oanang e sitisa mohopolo oa ho timela ho felisoa ho likhoto. Neurobiol. Ithute. Mem. 89: 560-566.

    1. Gilmartin, MR,
    2. McEchron, MD

    (2005) Li-neuron tse le 'ngoe tse kahara methapo ea methapo ea methapo e bonts'ang tonic le phasic coding nakong ea boemo ba tšabo. Behav. Neurosci. 119: 1496-1510.

    1. Goldstein, RZ,
    2. Volkow, ND

    (2002) Ho lemalla lithethefatsi le motheo oa eona oa motheo oa neurobiological: Bopaki ba Neuroimaging bakeng sa ho kenya letsoho ha cortex ea frontal. Am. J. Psychiatry 159: 1642-1652.

    1. Gonzalez-Lima, F.,
    2. Bruchey, AK

    (2004) Ntlafatso ea memori e ntlafalitsoeng ke metabolic e ntlafatsang methylene e putsoa. Ithute. Mem. 11: 633-640.

    1. Goodwin, RD,
    2. Mots'ehetsi, DA,
    3. Chinman, MJ,
    4. Wu, P.,
    5. Tebes, JK,
    6. Davidson, L.

    (2002) Kamano pakeng tsa ho tšoenyeha le tšebeliso ea lithethefatsi ho batho ba nang le mathata a tebileng a amanang. Compr. Psychiki 43: 245-252.

    1. Grant, S.,
    2. London, ED,
    3. Newlin, DB,
    4. Villemagne, VL,
    5. Liu, X.,
    6. Contoreggi, C.,
    7. Phillips, RL,
    8. Kimes, AS,
    9. Margolin, A.

    (1996) Ts'ebetso ea li-circuits tsa memori nakong ea takatso ea cueine e holisitsoeng ea koae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Saense 93: 12040-12045.

    1. Haralambous, T.,
    2. Westbrook, RF

    (1999) Ts'oaetso ea bupivacaine ka har'a nucleus e bokellana e sitisa ho fumana empa ha se polelo ea maemo a tšabo. Behav. Neurosci. 113: 925-940.

    1. Heimer, L.,
    2. Zahm, DS,
    3. Churchill, L,
    4. Kalivas, PW,
    5. Wohltmann, C.

    (1991) Boemo bo ikhethang mererong ea projal konokono le khetla ho rat. Khopolo-taba 41: 89-125.

    1. Herry, C.,
    2. Garcia, R.

    (2002) Tšebeliso ea nako e telele ea cortex ea nako e telele, empa eseng khatello ea maikutlo ea nako e telele, e amana le phepelo ea ho felisoa ha tšabo e ithutileng litoeba. J. Neurosci. 22: 577-583.

    1. Herry, C.,
    2. Ciocchi, S.,
    3. Senn, V.,
    4. Demmou, L.,
    5. Muller, C.,
    6. Luthi, A.

    (2008) Ho qala le ho tima ts'abo ka mekhahlelo e ikhethang ea methapo ea kutlo. Nature 454: 600-606.

    1. Hikind, N.,
    2. Maroun, M.

    (2008) Microinfusion ea mohanyetsi oa D1 receptor antagonist, SCH23390 ho IL empa eseng ho kopanya ha BLA ho kopanyeletsa maemo a tšabo a pherekano. Neurobiol. Ithute. Mem. 90: 217-222.

    1. Hofmann, SG,
    2. Meuret, AE,
    3. Lisa, JA,
    4. Simona, NM,
    5. Pollack, MH,
    6. Eisenmenger, K.,
    7. Shiekh, M.,
    8. Otto, MW

    (2006) Phallo ea kalafo ea ho pepeseha le D-cycloserine bakeng sa bokuli ba matšoenyeho sechabeng. Khoto. Gen. Psychiatry 63: 298-304.

    1. Hook, MS,
    2. Kalivas, PW

    (1995) Karolo ea ts'ebetso ea mesoaccumbens-pallidal potoloho ea ts'ebetso e iqapetsoeng. Khopolo-taba 64: 587-597.

    1. Hopkins, DA,
    2. Holstege, G.

    (1978) Morero oa Amygdaloid ho mesencephalon, likhaba le medulla oblongata katse. Hlakola Brain Res. 32: 529-547.

    1. Hugues, S.,
    2. Deschaux, O.,
    3. Garcia, R.

    (2004) Ts'oaetso ea postextinction ea ts'usumetso ea protheine ea methapogen e kenang mohopolong oa medial prefrontal cortex e tebisa mohopolo oa ho felisoa ha tšabo e nang le maemo. Ithute. Mem. 11: 540-543.

    1. Hyman, SE

    (2005) Tlatsetso: Lefu la ho ithuta le ho hopola. Am. J. Psychiatry 162: 1414-1422.

    1. Hyman, SM,
    2. Paliwal, P.,
    3. Sinha, R.

    (2007) Ho hlekefetsoa ha ngoana bongoaneng, khatello ea kelello le ho sebetsana ka katleho le khatello ho batho ba baholo ba itšetlehileng ka koae. Psychol. Ho lemalla. Behav. 21: 233-238.

    1. Izquierdo, A.,
    2. Wellman, CL,
    3. Holmes, A.

    (2006) khatello ea nakoana e sa laoleheng e baka ho khutlisetsoa ho dendritic cortex ea infralimbic le ho hanyetsa ho tšaba ho timela ho litoeba. J. Neurosci. 26: 5733-5738.

    1. Jones, BF,
    2. Groenewegen, HJ,
    3. Witter, MP

    (2005) Khokahano e kenellang ea cingex cortex ho rat e bonts'a ho ba teng ha marang-rang a arohaneng ka bongata. Khopolo-taba 133: 193-207.

    1. Jongen-Relo, AL, CA
    2. Kaufmann, S.,
    3. Feldon, J.

    (2003) Ho kenya letsoho ho fapaneng ha khetla le liphatlalatso tsa mantlha tsa li-ligus ho li-memory process. Behav. Neurosci. 117: 150-168.

    1. Jüngling, K.,
    2. Seidenbecher, T.,
    3. Sosulina, L.,
    4. Lesting, J.,
    5. Sangha, S.,
    6. Clark, SD,
    7. Okamura, N.,
    8. Duangdao, DM,
    9. Xu, YL,
    10. Reinscheid, RK,
    11. et al a.

    (2008) Neuropeptide S-Mediated taolo ea polelo ea tšabo le ho timela: Karolo ea li-neurons tse kopaneng tsa GABAergic ho amygdala. Neuron 59: 298-310.

    1. Kalisch, R.,
    2. Korenfeld, E.,
    3. Stephan, KE,
    4. Weiskopf, N.,
    5. Seymour, B.,
    6. Dolan, RJ

    (2006) Memori e felisitsoeng ke ho felisoa ha batho e itšetlehileng ka mohopolo e kenella ka marang-rang a marang-rang a sebaka sa pele le sa hippocampal. J. Neurosci. 26: 9503-9511.

    1. Kalivas, PW,
    2. Churchill, L,
    3. Romanides, A.

    (1999) Ho kenyelletsa potoloho ea pallidal-thalamocortical ka boits'oaro bo khahlisang. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 877: 64-70.

    1. Kalivas, PW,
    2. Jackson, D.,
    3. Romanidies, A.,
    4. Wyndham, L.,
    5. Duffy, P.

    (2001) Ho kenyeletsa potryidothalamic circry molemong oa ho sebetsa. Khopolo-taba 104: 129-136.

    1. Kalivas, PW,
    2. Volkow, N.,
    3. Seamans, J.

    (2005) Khothatso e sa laoleheng ea ho lemalla: Psychology in prejipal-accumbens glutamate transmission. Neuron 45: 647-650.

    1. Kantak, KM,
    2. Fifi, Y.,
    3. Valencia, E.,
    4. Green-Jordan, K.,
    5. Eichenbaum, HB

    (2002) Litlamorao tse khahlisang tsa "lidocaine inactivation" ea rostral le caudal basolateral amygdala mabapi le tlhokomelo le ho khutlisetsoa morao hoa boits'oaro ba koae ka koae. J. Neurosci. 22: 1126-1136.

    1. Kelley, AE

    (2004) Memori le bokhoba ba ho arolelana: Mekhoa ea tsamaiso ea methapo e arolelanoang. Neuron 44: 161-179.

    1. Kim, J.,
    2. Lee, S.,
    3. Park, K.,
    4. Hong, mimi,
    5. Pina, B.,
    6. Morwa, G.,
    7. Park, H.,
    8. Kim, WR,
    9. Park, E.,
    10. Choe, HK,
    11. et al a.

    (2007) Ho felisoa hoa Amygdala le ho timela hoa tšabo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Saense 104: 20955-20960.

    1. Komiskey, HL,
    2. Miller, DD,
    3. LaPidus, JB,
    4. Patil, PN

    (1977) Li-isomers tsa koae le tropacocaine: Phello ho 3H-catecholamine uptake ka rat brain synaptosomes. Bophelo Sci. 21: 1117-1122.

    1. Konorski, J.

    (1967) Ketsahalo e Akaretsang ea Brain (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL).

    1. Koya, E.,
    2. Uejima, JL,
    3. Wihbey, KA,
    4. Bossert, JM,
    5. Tšepo, BT,
    6. Shaham, Y.

    (2008) Karolo ea "cortex" ea ventral medial prefrontal cortex ho kenyelletsong ea takatso ea koae. Neuropharmacology 56: 177-185.

    1. Kushner, MG,
    2. Kim, SW,
    3. Donahue, C.,
    4. Thuras, P.,
    5. Adson, D.,
    6. Kotlyar, M.,
    7. McCabe, J.,
    8. Peterson, J.,
    9. Foa, EB

    (2007) d-cycloserine e ntlafalitsoeng e pepesang kalafo bakeng sa ho hloka taolo. Biol. Psychiatry 62: 835-838.

    1. LaLumiere, RT,
    2. Kalivas, PW

    (2008) Ho lokolloa ha glutamate ka har'a konokono ea li-nucleus ho hlokahala bakeng sa ho batla ha heroin. J. Neurosci. 28: 3170-3177.

    1. LaRowe, SD,
    2. Myrick, H.,
    3. Malcolm, R.,
    4. Kalivas, P.

    (2005) Tsoelo-pele ea seboka sa selemo le selemo sa 35th sa Mokhatlo oa Neuroscience (Washington, DC), ho khutla ha Cue le neuroimaging lithutong tse itšetlehileng ka koae: Phuputso e laoloang ke sefofane se laoloang habeli ke sefofane se kenyeletsang N-acetylcysteine.

    1. LaRowe, SD,
    2. Myrick, H.,
    3. Hedden, S.,
    4. Mardikian, P.,
    5. Saladin, M.,
    6. McRae, A.,
    7. Brady, K.,
    8. Kalivas, PW,
    9. Malcolm, R.

    (2007) Na takatso ea koae e fokotsoe ke N-nehana? Am. J. Psychiatry 164: 1115-1117.

    1. Laviolette, SR,
    2. Lipski, WJ,
    3. Mohau, AA

    (2005) Keketseho ea li-neuron ka har'a methapo ea methapo ea methapo ea methapo e kenyelletsa ho ithuta ka maikutlo ka ho phatloha le likhoutu tsa khafetsa ka ho kenngoa ha dopamine D4 receptor-based basolateral amygdala. J. Neurosci. 25: 6066-6075.

    1. Ledgerwood, L.,
    2. Richardson, R.,
    3. Cranney, J.

    (2003) Litholoana tsa d-cycloserine mabapi le ho timela hoa serame sa boemo bo phahameng. Behav. Neurosci. 117: 341-349.

    1. LeDoux, JE,
    2. Iwata, J.,
    3. Cicchetti, P.,
    4. Reis, DJ

    (1988) Litekanyetso tse fapaneng tsa "amygdaloid" nucleus Mediate mediate autonomic le boitšoaro bo amanang le tšabo e nang le maemo. J. Neurosci. 8: 2517-2529.

    1. Leri, F.,
    2. Flores, J.,
    3. Rodaros, D.,
    4. Stewart, J.

    (2002) blockade ea khatello ea maikutlo e khothalletsoang empa e se ts'usumetso ea koae ka ho kenya bahanyetsi ba Noradrenergic mokokotlong oa "stria terminalis" kapa "nucleus" e bohareng ea amygdala. J. Neurosci. 22: 5713-5718.

    1. Levita, L.,
    2. Dalley, JW,
    3. Robbins, TW

    (2002) Nyutlelie e bokella dopamine mme e ithutile tšabo e ntlafalitsoeng: Tlhahlobo le liphetho tse ling tse ncha. Behav. Resin ea Boko. 137: 115-127.

    1. Li, G.,
    2. Nka, SS,
    3. Quirk, GJ

    (2009) Meetso ea marang-rang ea nnete ea bioloji ea ho hapa le ho felisoa ha litloaelano tsa tšabo tse maemong a morao a amanang le amygdala neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 101: 1629-1646.

    1. Likhtik, E.,
    2. Pelletier, JG,
    3. Paz, R.,
    4. Pare, D.

    (2005) Taolo ea pele ea amygdala. J. Neurosci. 25: 7429-7437.

    1. Likhtik, E.,
    2. Popa, D.,
    3. Apergis-Schoute, J.,
    4. Fidacaro, GA,
    5. Pare, D.

    (2008) Li-neuron tse amanang le li-amygdala lia hlokahala bakeng sa ho bontša tšabo e felileng. Nature 454: 642-645.

    1. Lin, HC,
    2. Mao, SC,
    3. Su, CL,
    4. Gean, PW

    (2008) Karolo ea li-receptor tsa cortex ea li-precental cXexUMX phetolo ea mohopolo oa tšabo. Cereb. Cortex 19: 165-176.

    1. Madayag, A.,
    2. Lobner, D.,
    3. Kau, KS,
    4. Mantsch, JR,
    5. Abdulhameed, O.,
    6. Hearing, M.,
    7. Grier, MD,
    8. Baker, DA

    (2007) E phetoa NTsamaiso ea -acetylcysteine ​​e fetola litlamorao tse lebisang ho cocaine. J. Neurosci. 27: 13968-13976.

    1. Maren, S.

    (2005) Ho aha le ho pata mehopolo ea tšabo bokong. Setsebi sa mahlale 11: 89-99.

    1. Marsicano, G.,
    2. Wotjak, CT,
    3. Azad, SC,
    4. Bisogno, T.,
    5. Rammes, G.,
    6. Cascio, MG,
    7. Hermann, H.,
    8. Tang, J.,
    9. Hofmann, C.,
    10. Zieglgänsberger, W.,
    11. et al a.

    (2002) Tsamaiso ea "cannabinoid" ea morao-rao e laola ho felisoa ha mehopolo e khopameng. Nature 418: 530-534.

    1. Matsumoto, M.,
    2. Togashi, H.,
    3. Konno, K.,
    4. Koseki, H.,
    5. Hirata, R.,
    6. Izumi, T.,
    7. Yamaguchi, T.,
    8. Yoshioka, M.

    (2008) Matšoenyeho a kamora ho pepa a pelehi a fetolang ho fela hoa tšabo ea boemo bo ts'epahalang bo itšetlehileng ka litheko tsa batho ba baholo. Pharmacol. Likokoana-hloko. Behav. 89: 247-252.

    1. McDonald, AJ,
    2. Mascagni, F.,
    3. Guo, L.

    (1996) Morero oa litereke tsa medial le tsa morao-rao tse tlang pele ho amygdala: A Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin boithuto ba ka hara rat. Khopolo-taba 71: 55-75.

    1. McFarland, K.,
    2. Kalivas, PW

    (2001) Ts'ebetso e tsamaisang koae e kenyeletsang ea ho batla lithethefatsi. J. Neurosci. 21: 8655-8663.

    1. McFarland, K.,
    2. Lapish, CC,
    3. Kalivas, PW

    (2003) Ho nts'etsopele ea glutamate ea mantlha karolong ea mantlha ea nucleus e bokellanang e khutlisetsa mokhoa o tsosang takatso ea koae. J. Neurosci. 23: 3531-3537.

    1. McFarland, K.,
    2. Davidge, SB,
    3. Lapish, CC,
    4. Kalivas, PW

    (2004) Limbic le motor circry tse matlafalitsoeng tse matlafalitsoeng tsa ts'ebetso ea ho ts'oara koae. J. Neurosci. 24: 1551-1560.

    1. McLaughlin, J.,
    2. Bona, RE

    (2003) Inactivation e ikhethileng ea dorsomedial prefrontal cortex le basolateral amygdala attenuates e khutlisetsoeng ka mokhoa o ts'oarelitsoeng ea boiphihlelo bo felileng ba boits'oaro ba koae ea koae. Psychopharmacology 168: 57-65.

    1. McLaughlin, RJ,
    2. Floresco, SB

    (2007) Karolo ea likarolo tse fapaneng tsa amygdala tsa basolateral ho khutlisetsong hoa cue-e felletseng le phetheho ea boits'oaro ba lijo. Khopolo-taba 146: 1484-1494.

    1. Milad, MR,
    2. Quirk, GJ

    (2002) Li-Neurons tse memori ea pontso ea cortex ea medial prefrontal cortex bakeng sa tšabo ea ho timela. Nature 420: 70-74.

    1. Milad, MR,
    2. Vidal-Gonzalez, I,
    3. Quirk, GJ

    (2004) Motlakase oa motlakase oa cortex ea medial prefrontal o fokotsa tšabo e nang le maemo ka mokhoa o ikhethang oa nakoana. Behav. Neurosci. 118: 389-394.

    1. Milad, MR,
    2. Quinn, BT,
    3. Pitman, RK,
    4. Orr, SP,
    5. Fischl, B.,
    6. Rauch, SL

    (2005) Ho fokola ha cortex ea ventromedial pele ho batho ho kopantsoe le mohopolo oa ho timela. Proc. Natl. Acad. Saense 102: 10706-10711.

    1. Milad, MR,
    2. Rauch, SL,
    3. Pitman, RK,
    4. Quirk, GJ

    (2006) Tšabo e felile ho litoeba: Litlamorao bakeng sa monahano oa kelello oa motho le mathata a ho tšoenyeha. Biol. Psychol. 73: 61-71.

    1. Milad, MR,
    2. Quirk, GJ,
    3. Pitman, RK,
    4. Orr, SP,
    5. Fischl, B.,
    6. Rauch, SL

    (2007a) Karolo ea bokhoni ba batho ba dorsal anterior cingrate cortex ho bontša tšabo e ithutileng. Biol. Psychiatry 62: 1191-1194.

    1. Milad, MR,
    2. Wright, CI, Hotelek
    3. Orr, SP,
    4. Pitman, RK,
    5. Quirk, GJ,
    6. Rauch, SL

    (2007b) Hopola ho felisoa hoa tšabo ho batho ho kenya letsoho cortex ea ventromedial pele le hippocampus khonsateng. Biol. Psychiatry 62: 446-454.

    1. Milad, MR,
    2. Orr, SP,
    3. Lasko, NB,
    4. Chang, Y.,
    5. Rauch, SL,
    6. Pitman, RK

    (2008) Ho ba teng le mohloli o fumanoeng oa ho hopola o fokotsehileng bakeng sa ho fela hoa tšabo ho PTSD: Liphetho tsa thuto ea mafahla. J. Psychiatr. Res. 42: 515-520.

    1. Miller, EK

    (2000) Cortex ea pele le taolo ea kelello. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 1: 59-65.

    1. Miller, CA,
    2. Marshall, JF

    (2004) Tlhahiso e fetotsoeng ea "cortex" e fetotsoeng nakong ea lithethefatsi. J. Neurosci. 24: 6889-6897.

    1. Mogenson, GJ,
    2. Nielsen, MA

    (1983) Bopaki ba hore maqhubu a ho bokella projeke ea subpallidal GABAergic a etsa mosebetsi oa popomotor. Resin ea Boko. Bull. 11: 309-314.

    1. Moran, MM,
    2. McFarland, K.,
    3. Melendez, RI,
    4. Kalivas, PW,
    5. Seamans, JK

    (2005) Phapanyetsano ea cystine / glutamate e laola methibotic glutamate receptor presynaptic inhibition ea phetisetso e fetisang le ho ba kotsing ea ho batla koae. J. Neurosci. 25: 6389-6393.

    1. Morgan, MA,
    2. LeDoux, JE

    (1995) Tlatsetso e fapaneng ea cortal ea dorsal le ea ventral ea pele ho tse fumanehang le ho felisoa hoa tšabo e nang le maemo lipapatsong. Behav. Neurosci. 109: 681-688.

    1. Morgan, MA,
    2. Romanki, LM,
    3. LeDoux, JE

    (1993) Ho eketsoa ha thuto ea maikutlo: Tlatsetso ea cortex ea medial prefrontal. Neurosci. Lett. 163: 109-113.

    1. Mueller, D.,
    2. Porter, JT,
    3. Quirk, GJ

    (2008) Ho tšoaea Noradrenergic ho infralimbic cortex ho eketsa thabo ea sele le ho matlafatsa mohopolo bakeng sa ho tšaba ho timela. J. Neurosci. 28: 369-375.

    1. Myers, KM,
    2. Davis, M.

    (2007) Mekhoa e felisang tšabo. Mol. Psychiatry 12: 120-150.

    1. Noble, EP

    (2000) Tlatsetso le ts'ebetso ea moputso oa eona ka li-polymorphisms tsa D2 dopamine receptor gene: Tlhahlobo. EUR. Psychiki 15: 79-89.

    1. Noble, EP,
    2. Blum, K.,
    3. Khalsa, ME,
    4. Ritchie, T.,
    5. Montgomery, A.,
    6. Wood, RC,
    7. Fitch, RJ,
    8. Ozkaragoz, T.,
    9. Sheridan, PJ,
    10. Anglin, MD

    (1993) Mokhatlo o kopaneng oa D2 dopamine receptor gene e itšetlehileng ka koae. Tšebeliso ea Lithethefatsi e Tšepahala. 33: 271-285.

    1. O'Brien, MS,
    2. Wu, LT,
    3. Anthony, JC

    (2005) Ts'ebeliso ea cocoaine le ho hlaha hoa litlhaselo tse tšosang sechabeng: Mokhoa o mong oa crossover. Qaqisa. Sebelisa hampe 40: 285-297.

    1. Ongür, D.,
    2. Theko, JL

    (2000) Mokhatlo o hlophisitsoeng oa marang-rang o kahara likhoto, litšoene le batho. Cereb. Cortex 10: 206-219.

    1. Ovari, J.,
    2. Leri, F.

    (2008) Ho kenyelletsa ts'ebetso ea "cyinex" ea pele ea poportalial preortal cortex e hlahisang botjha ba ho batla ha heroin ho bakoang ke ho phetoa hape ha heroin. Neurosci. Lett. 444: 52-55.

    1. Pamplona, ​​FA,
    2. Prediger, RD,
    3. Pandolfo, P.,
    4. Takahashi, RN

    (2006) Cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2 e thusa ho felisoa ha mohopolo oa maemo a tšabo le mohopolo oa sepakapaka litšoantšong. Psychopharmacology 188: 641-649.

    1. Paolone, G.,
    2. Botreau, F.,
    3. Stewart, J.

    (2008) Litlamorao tsa ts'usumetso ea d-cycloserine mabapi le ho timela ha sebaka se ratoang ke koae e ka ba telele le ho hanela ho khutlisetsoa hape. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 202: 403-409.

    1. Park, WK,
    2. Bari, AA,
    3. Jey, AR,
    4. Anderson, SM,
    5. Spealman, RD,
    6. Rowlett, JK,
    7. Pierce, RC

    (2002) Cocaine e laetsoeng ka har'a medial prefrontal cortex e khutlisetsa boits'oaro ba ho ts'oara koae ka ho eketsa phetisetso ea AMPA receptor-Mediated glutamate transmiton ka har'a li-nucleus. J. Neurosci. 22: 2916-2925.

    1. Paxinos, G.,
    2. Watson, C.

    (2005) Boko ba likhoto ho litlhophiso tsa li-stereotaxic (Thutong ea Litaba, New York), 5th ed.

    1. Peters, J.,
    2. Kalivas, PW

    (2006) Sehlopha sa II metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist, LY379268, se thibela boitšoaro ba k'hok'heine le bo batlang lijo lijong. Psychopharmacology 186: 143-149.

    1. Peters, J.,
    2. LaLumiere, RT,
    3. Kalivas, PW

    (2008a) Infortal cortex ea infralimbic e ikarabella bakeng sa ho thibela ho batla ha koae ho ho tima likhoto. J. Neurosci. 28: 6046-6053.

    1. Peters, J.,
    2. Vallone, J.,
    3. Laurendi, K.,
    4. Kalivas, PW

    (2008b) Likarolo tse hanyetsanang tsa cortex ea ventral prefrontal cortex le amygdala ea basolateral mabapi le ho hlaphoheloa habonolo ha motho ea batlang koae ka koae. Psychopharmacology 197: 319-326.

    1. Phan, KL,
    2. Britton, JC,
    3. Taylor, SF,
    4. Feiga, LM,
    5. Liberzon, I.

    (2006) Corticolimbic phallo ea mali nakong ea ts'ebetso ea maikutlo a nontraumatic ho khatello ea maikutlo ea posttraumatic. Khoto. Gen. Psychiatry 63: 184-192.

    1. Phelps, EA,
    2. Delgado, MR,
    3. Nearing, KI,
    4. LeDoux, JE

    (2004) Ho ithuta ho fetela ho batho: Karolo ea amygdala le vmPFC. Neuron 43: 897-905.

    1. Porrino, LJ,
    2. Lyons, D.

    (2000) Cortex ea Orbital le ea medial pele le tlhekefetso ea psychostimulant: Lithuto ho mehlala ea liphoofolo. Cereb. Cortex 10: 326-333.

    1. Porrino, LJ,
    2. Smith, HR,
    3. Nader, MA,
    4. Beveridge, TJ

    (2007) Litlamorao tsa koae: Morero o fetolang nakong ea ts'ebeliso ea lithethefatsi. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 31: 1593-1600.

    1. Powell, DA,
    2. Skaggs, H.,
    3. Churchwell, J.,
    4. McLaughlin, J.

    (2001) Litla-morao tsa kalafo ea methapo ea methapo ea methapo ea kutlo. Behav. Neurosci. 115: 1029-1038.

    1. Quirk, GJ,
    2. Biri, JS

    (2006) Ho nka karolo pele ho taolo ea maikutlo: Phetoho ea rat le lithuto tsa batho. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 16: 723-727.

    1. Quirk, GJ,
    2. Mueller, D.

    (2008) Mekhoa e metle ea ho ithuta ho fetela le ho khutla. Neuropsychopharmacology 33: 56-72.

    1. Quirk, GJ,
    2. Repa, C.,
    3. LeDoux, JE

    (1995) Boemo ba tšabo bo ntlafatsa likarabo tse khutšoane tsa morao-rao tsa li-neuron tsa morao-rao: Lirekoto tse tšoanang lipakeng tsa rat e sebetsang ka bolokolohi. Neuron 15: 1029-1039.

    1. Repa, JC,
    2. Muller, J.,
    3. Apergis, J.,
    4. Desrochers, TM,
    5. Zhou, Y.,
    6. LeDoux, JE

    (2001) Baahi ba babeli ba fapaneng ba cell amygdala ba kenya letsoho ho qala le ho boloka mohopolo. Nat. Neurosci. 4: 724-731.

    1. Rescorla, RA

    (2004) Ho hlaphoheloa ka boomo Ithute. Mem. 11: 501-509.

    1. Ressler, KJ,
    2. Rothbaum, BO,
    3. Tannenbaum, L.,
    4. Anderson, P.,
    5. Litsipa, K.,
    6. Zimand, E.,
    7. Hodges, L.,
    8. Davis, M.

    (2004) Matlafatso ea methapo ea kutlo ha e kopana le psychotherapy: Tšebeliso ea d-cycloserine ho batho ba phobic ho thusa ho felisa tšabo. Khoto. Gen. Psychiatry 61: 1136-1144.

    1. Reynolds, SM, CA Hotelek
    2. Berridge, KC

    (2001) Tšabo le ho fepa kahar'a sekolopata se bokellanang: Khethollo ea Rostrocaudal ea ts'ireletso ea GABA-elicited khahlanong le boits'oaro. J. Neurosci. 21: 3261-3270.

    1. Reynolds, SM, CA Hotelek
    2. Berridge, KC

    (2002) Khothatso e ntle le e mpe khokahanong ea li-nucleus e bokellanang: Li-gradients tse kopaneng tsa rostrocaudal bakeng sa ho ja tse monate tsa GABA, ho latsoa "ho rata" / "ho hlakola" karabelo, ho rata kapa ho qoba. J. Neurosci. 22: 7308-7320.

    1. Roger, JL,
    2. Ghee, S.,
    3. Bona, RE

    (2008) Tsamaiso ea "neural circry" e tlatselletsang ka hare ho boits'ebetso ba ho batla hoa heroine mohlaleng oa phoofolo e khutlang. Khopolo-taba 151: 579-588.

    1. Royer, S.,
    2. Pare, D.

    (2002) Ts'ebetso ea li-borifi ea synaptic ea li-Bidirectional ka har'a li-neuron tsa amygdala tse amehang le ho fela ha likarabo tsa maemo a tšabo. Khopolo-taba 115: 455-462.

    1. Sanchez, CJ,
    2. Bailie, TM,
    3. Wu, WR,
    4. Li, N.,
    5. Sorg, BA

    (2003) Ho qhekella ha dopamine D1-like receptor activation ho rat medial prefrontal cortex alters stress- le cocaine e susumetsoang ea boiphetetso ba maemo a ikhethileng a sebaka. Khopolo-taba 119: 497-505.

    1. Sstrong, E.,
    2. Ge, H.,
    3. Ren, K.,
    4. Pena, DO,
    5. Quirk, GJ

    (2004) Khokahanyo ea ho felisoa ha tšabo e hloka motsoako oa liprotheine ho cortex ea medial prefrontal. J. Neurosci. 24: 5704-5710.

    1. Sareen, J.,
    2. Chartier, M.,
    3. Paulus, MP,
    4. Stein, MB

    (2006) Tšebeliso e sa sebetseng ea lithethefatsi le mathata a ho tšoenyeha: Lintho tse fumanoeng ho tsoa lipatlisisong tse peli tsa sechaba. Resp Psychiatry. 142: 11-17.

    1. Schmidt, ED,
    2. Voorn, P.,
    3. Binnekade, R.,
    4. Schoffelmeer, AN,
    5. De Vries, TJ

    (2005) Ho kenella ka mokhoa o fapaneng oa cortex ea prelimbic le striatum maemong a heroin le maemo a batlang ho latela ho felisoa ha nako e telele. EUR. J. Neurosci. 22: 2347-2356.

    1. Schoepp, DD,
    2. Wright, RA,
    3. Levine, LR,
    4. Gaydos, B.,
    5. Potter, WZ

    (2003) LY354740, mGlu2 / 3 receptor agonist e le mokhoa oa ho ngola ho sebetsana le ho tšoenyeha / khatello ea maikutlo. Khatello ea Kelello 6: 189-197.

    1. Schroeder, JA,
    2. Schneider, JS

    (2002) Litšebelisano tsa GABA-opioid ho globus pallidus: [D-Ala2] -Met-enkephalinamide attenuates potasiamo-evoke Gaba kutolewa ka mor'a leseli le sa hlaseloang. J. Neurochem. 82: 666-673.

    1. Schwienbacher, mimi ,.
    2. Fendt, M.,
    3. Richardson, R.,
    4. Schnitzler, HU

    (2004) Ho inactivation ea nakoana ea nucleus ho sitisa ho fumana le polelo ea tšabo e ka 'nang ea hlaha liphatseng. Resin ea Boko. 1027: 87-93.

    1. Bona, RE

    (2005) Mekha e ka tlase ea mokhatlo e amanang le koae e bakang ho khutla hape. EUR. J. Pharmacol. 526: 140-146.

    1. Sesack, SR,
    2. Deutch, AY,
    3. Roth, RH,
    4. Bunney, BS

    (1989) Mokhatlo o hlophisitsoeng oa litšoantšo tsa litlhahlobo tse sebetsang hantle tsa "prealalal cortex" ea litekanyetso pele ho nako. Phaseolus vulgaris leucoagglutinin. J. Comp. Neurol. 290: 213-242.

    1. Shaham, Y.,
    2. Erb, S.,
    3. Stewart, J.

    (2000) Ho sithabela ha khatello ea maikutlo ho khutlisetsang ho heroin le cocaine tse batlang litlamong: Tlhahlobo. Brain Res. Brain Res. Tšen. 33: 13-33.

    1. Shaham, Y.,
    2. Shalev, U.,
    3. Lu, L.,
    4. De Wit, H.,
    5. Stewart, J.

    (2003) Mohlala oa ho khutlisetsa lithethefatsi morao tjena: Nalane, mokhoa le liphetho tse kholo. Psychopharmacology, 3-20.

    1. Shin, LM,
    2. Orr, SP,
    3. Carson, MA,
    4. Rauch, SL,
    5. Macklin, ML,
    6. Lasko, NB,
    7. Peters, PM,
    8. Metzger, LJ,
    9. Dougherty, DD,
    10. Cannistraro, PA,
    11. et al a.

    (2004) Phallo ea mali a khubung ea tikoloho sebakeng sa amygdala le medial prefrontal cortex nakong ea litšoantšo tse sithabetsang ho li-veteran tsa banna le tsa basali tsa Vietnam tse nang le PTSD. Khoto. Gen. Psychiatry 61: 168-176.

    1. Sierra-Mercado, D.,
    2. Corcoran, KA,
    3. Leron-Milad, K.,
    4. Quirk, GJ

    (2006) Ho se sebetse ha cortex ea ventromedial pele ho nako ho fokotsa ho bua ka tšabo e nang le maemo le ho sitisa ho hopola ho timela ka morao ho moo. EUR. J. Neurosci. 24: 1751-1758.

    1. Sinha, R.,
    2. Garcia, M.,
    3. Paliwal, P.,
    4. Kreek, MJ,
    5. Rounsaville, BJ

    (2006) Khatello e matla ea koae e bakang khatello ea maikutlo le khatello ea "hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal" e bolela esale pele ka litholoana tse khutlang tsa koae. Khoto. Gen. Psychiatry 63: 324-331.

    1. Sotres-Bayon, F.,
    2. Kaine, CK,
    3. LeDoux, JE

    (2006) Mekhoa ea brain ea ho felisoa ha tšabo: Lits'oants'o tsa nalane mabapi le tlatsetso ea cortex ea pele. Biol. Psychiatry 60: 329-336.

    1. Sotres-Bayon, F.,
    2. Diaz-Mataix, L.,
    3. Bush, DE,
    4. LeDoux, JE

    (2008) Likarolo tse sa lumellaneng bakeng sa cortex ea ventromedial pele le amygdala ka tšabo e fetelletseng: Tlatsetso ea NR2B. Cereb. Cortex 19: 474-482.

    1. Stefanacci, L.,
    2. Amaral, DG

    (2002) Maikutlo a mang a hlahisitsoeng ka mokhoa oa cortical monkey amygdala: Thutong ea morao-rao ea morao-rao. J. Comp. Neurol. 451: 301-323.

    1. Letsatsi, W.,
    2. Rebec, GV

    (2005) Karolo ea li-receptor tsa preortal cortex D1-like and D2-like receptors ka boits'oaro ba ho batla koae ka likhoto. Psychopharmacology 177: 315-323.

    1. Sutton, MA,
    2. Schmidt, EF,
    3. Choi, KH,
    4. Schad, CA,
    5. Whisler, K.,
    6. Simmons, D.,
    7. Karanian, DA,
    8. Monteggia, LM,
    9. Neve, RL,
    10. Boithati, DW

    (2003) Ho eketseha ha lintho ka mokhoa o feteletseng ho li-receptor tsa AMPA ho fokotsa boitšoaro bo batlang cocaine. Nature 421: 70-75.

    1. Tang, XC,
    2. McFarland, K.,
    3. Cagle, S.,
    4. Kalivas, PW

    (2005) Ho ts'oaroa ha cocoaine e kentsoeng ke cocoine ho hloka ho khothaletsoa hoa li-receptor tsa μ-opioid ka har'a podral pallidum. J. Neurosci. 25: 4512-4520.

    1. Torregrossa, MM,
    2. Tang, XC,
    3. Kalivas, PW

    (2008) Morero oa glutamatergic ho tloha pele ho cortex ho ea fihla bokong bokong ho hlokahala bakeng sa ho fokotseha ha k'hok'heine ea cocaine ho Gral ea pralidal ea pallidal. Neurosci. Lett. 438: 142-145.

    1. Verdejo-Garcia, A.,
    2. Bechara, A.,
    3. Recknor, EC,
    4. Perez-Garcia, M.

    (2007) Ho ts'oaroa ke maikutlo a fosahetseng ka lebaka la khatello ea maikutlo ho bolela mathata a ts'epahalo ea lintho. Tšebeliso ea Lithethefatsi e Tšepahala. 91: 213-219.

    1. Vertes, RP

    (2004) Lits'oants'o tse fapaneng tsa cortex ea infralimbic le prelimbic ho rat. Synapse 51: 32-58.

    1. Vidal-Gonzalez, I,
    2. Vidal-Gonzalez, B.,
    3. Rauch, SL,
    4. Quirk, GJ

    (2006) Microstimulation e senola litšusumetso tse hanyetsanang tsa cortex ea prelimbic le infralimbic polelo ea tšabo e nang le maemo. Ithute. Mem. 13: 728-733.

    1. Volkow, ND,
    2. Fowler, JS,
    3. Wang, GJ,
    4. Hitzemann, R.,
    5. Logan, J.,
    6. Scilyer, DJ,
    7. Dewey, SL,
    8. Wolf, AP

    (1993) Ho fumaneha ha "dopamine" DopNUMX, ho kopantsoe le "metabolism" e fokotsoang. Synapse 14: 169-177.

    1. Volkow, ND,
    2. Fowler, JS,
    3. Wang, GJ

    (2002) Karolo ea dopamine ts'ebetsong ea matlafatso ea lithethefatsi le bokhoba ba batho: Liphetho tse tsoang liphuputsong tsa monahano. Behav. Pharmacol. 13: 355-366.

    1. Voorn, P.,
    2. Vanderschuren, LJ,
    3. Groenewegen, HJ,
    4. Robbins, TW,
    5. Pennartz, CM

    (2004) Ho kenya sekhahla karohanong ea dorsal-ventral ea striatum. Trends Neurosci. 27: 468-474.

    1. Walaas, mimi,
    2. Fonnum, F.

    (1979) Ho ajoa le tšimoloho ea glutamate decarboxylase le choline acetyltransferase libakeng tsa potral pallidum le libakeng tse ling tsa basal forebrain. Resin ea Boko. 177: 325-336.

    1. Waldhoer, M.,
    2. Bartlett, SE,
    3. Whistler, JL

    . Annu. Moruti Biochem. 73: 953-990.

    1. Wasserman, DA,
    2. Havassy, ​​BE,
    3. Boles, SM

    (1997) Liketsahalo tse sithabetsang le khatello ea maikutlo e bakelang basebelisi ba koae ba kenang kalafo ea poraefete. Tšebeliso ea Lithethefatsi e Tšepahala. 46: 1-8.

    1. Weber, DA,
    2. Reynolds, CR Hotelek

    (2004) Maikutlo a Clinical mabapi le litlamorao tsa neurobiological tsa khatello ea kelello. Neuropsychol. Tšen. 14: 115-129.

    1. Wilensky, AE,
    2. Schafe, GE,
    3. Kristensen, MP,
    4. LeDoux, JE

    (2006) Ho nahanisisa potoloho ea tšabo: Naleli e bohareng ea amygdala e hlokahala bakeng sa ho fumana, ho kopanya le ho hlahisa boemo ba tšabo ba Pavlovian. J. Neurosci. 26: 12387-12396.

    1. Wilhelm, S.,
    2. Buhlmann, U.,
    3. Tolin, DF,
    4. Meunier, SA,
    5. Pearlson, GD,
    6. Reese, HE,
    7. Cannistraro, P.,
    8. Jenike, MA,
    9. Rauch, SL

    (2008) Phekolo ea kalafo ea boitšoaro ka d-cycloserine bakeng sa ho lemala habonolo. Am. J. Psychiatry 165: 335-341.

    1. Zahm, DS,
    2. Heimer, L.

    (1990) Litsela tse peli tsa transpallidal tse qalileng ka har'a li-nucleus tsa raton. J. Comp. Neurol. 302: 437-446.

    1. Zahm, DS,
    2. Litaba tsa Zaborszky, L.,
    3. Alones, VE,
    4. Heimer, L.

    (1985) Bopaki ba ho lekana ha glutamate decarboxylase le Met-enkephalin immunoreactivities litsing tsa axon tsa rat ventral pallidum. Resin ea Boko. 325: 317-321.

    1. Zimmerman, JM,
    2. Rabinak, CA,
    3. McLachlan, IG,
    4. Maren, S.

    (2007) Mookotaba oa bohareng ba amygdala o bohlokoa bakeng sa ho fumana le ho bontša tšabo e nang le maemo ka mor'a ho hatella ka bongata. Ithute. Mem. 14: 634-644.

    • Kenya ho CiteULikeCiteULike
    • Kenya ho Deliciousmonate
    • Kenya ho DiggDigg
    • Kenya ho FacebookFacebook
    • Kenya ho RedditReddit
    • Kenya ho TwitterTwitter

    Ke eng hoo?

    Lihlooho tse qotsitsoeng sehloohong sena