Tlhaloso e fapaneng ea kelello ea mocheso oa inthanete ho batho ba lemaletseng inthanete (2013)

PLoS One. 2013; 8 (2): e55162. Doi: 10.1371 / journal.pone.0055162. Epub 2013 Feb 7.

Romano M, Osborne LA, Truzoli R, Reed P.

mohloli o moholo

Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.

inahaneloang

Boithuto bo ithutile ka tšusumetso e kapele inthanete ho pepeseha hoa maemo a maikutlo le a kelello a inthanete bokhoba ebile bo tlase inthanete-Bahlahisi. Barupeluoa ba ile ba fuoa liteko tse ngata tsa kelello ho hlahloba maemo a inthanete lemalla ntho, ho ferekana, ho tšoenyeha, khatello ea maikutlo, schizotypy, le mekhoa ea Autism. Ba ile ba fuoa monyetla oa ho inthanete bakeng sa 15 min, le ho hlahlojoa bocha bakeng sa maikutlo le matšoenyeho a hona joale. Internet lemalla ntho e ne e amahanngoa le khatello ea maikutlo e nkileng nako e telele, ho hloka botsitso le mekhoa ea autism. E phahameng inthanete-Bahlahisi ba boetse ba bonts'a ho fokotseha hoa maikutlo ha ho latela inthanete sebelisa ha ho bapisoa le tse tlase inthanete-Bahlahisi. Tšusumetso e mpe hang hang ea ho pepesetsoa hoa inthanete on the mood of inthanete boloi ba bona bo ka kenya letsoho ts'ebetsong e eketsehileng ea batho ba lekang ho fokotsa maikutlo a bona a tlase ka ho kopanela ka potlako ho inthanete sebelisa.

Selelekela

Lilemong tse leshome tse fetileng, kaha polelo eo e ile ea phehisanoa haholo ka lingoliloeng tsa bongaka [1], 'bokhoba ba marang-rang' bo se bo nkiloe e le psychopathology ea lipale [2] e kanna ea ama palo e kholo ea batho [3]. Morero oa ts'ebeliso ea marang-rang ho 'maraba a marang-rang' o fapane, empa ho sebelisoa marang-rang bakeng sa papali ea chelete [4] le litšoantšo tsa bootsoa [5] li tloaelehile har'a batho ba joalo. Tšusumetso e mpe ea ts'ebeliso e feteletseng ea inthanete e ka bonoa likarolong tse fapaneng tsa bophelo ba batho [6], [7], hammoho le likarolo tse ngata tsa tšebetso ea malapa a bona [8]. Leha ho le joalo, ha ho na lipatlisiso tse entsoeng tse senolang litšusumetso tsa kelello tsa ha motho a pepesetsoa marang-rang ka 'makhoba a marang-rang', a ka etsang joalo ka mokhanni oa boitšoaro bo joalo ba mathata.

Hoa tsebahala hore batho ba ka nkoang e le 'maraba oa inthanete' ba bontša matšoao a fapaneng a kelello a kopaneng [9], joalo ka khatello ea maikutlo [10], [11], khaello ea tlhokomelo le khatello ea kelello [5], [10], hammoho le ho itšehla thajana le ho itšepa ho tlōla [12]-[14]. Ho feta moo, li ka bonts'a mefuta e fapaneng ea litšobotsi le litšobotsi tsa hae [15], joalo ka ho susumetsoa [16], maikutlo le ho batla lintho tse ncha [17], [18] mme ka linako tse ling ho ntlafatsoe maemo a mabifi [19], [20]. Leha liphumano tsena mabapi le litšobotsi tsa ba ka bang kotsing ea ho lemalla marang-rang li le bohlokoa, ho theha mohlala o kenyelletsang proximal (mohlala, sepheo le ho tiisa) hammoho le lisosa tse ka sehlohlolong tsa ts'ebeliso ea marang-rang li bohlokoa ho nts'etsopele kutloisiso le kalafo. tsa lefu lena [21]-[23]. Ho fihlela sena, thuto ea hajoale e fuputsitse hore na ho pepesetsoa marang-rang ho ama maemo a mabe a maikutlo ho batho ba lemaletseng marang-rang ho bapisoa le ba sa bonts'eng mokhoa o mongata oa ho beha inthanete.

Hangata ho nahanoa hore ts'ebeliso ea inthanete e bolokoa ke litlamorao tse ntle tsa ts'ebeliso ea ts'ebeliso e joalo; mohlala, tlhahiso ea eona ea boithabiso, tšebeliso ea nako kapa ha o batla litaba [13]. Ntle le moo, ho khothalelitsoe hore tšebeliso e phahameng e ka susumetsoa ke lintlha tse joalo ka litlhaloso tse hlakileng, ka sebele ho basebelisi ba lilemong tsa bocha [24]. Leha ho le joalo, hangata ho hlokomeloa hore lintlha tse ling tsa kelello, tse sa amaneng le liphetho tse matlafatsang, hangata li kenella ho boloka maemo a phahameng a boits'oaro bo nang le mathata. Ka mohlala, ho pepesehela maemo a kenyang kotsi ha ho etse hore batho ba tšoenyehileng ba be le mekhoa e litšila ea ho becha [4], [25]. Ka mokhoa o ts'oanang, ho pepesehela ntho ea boitšoaro bo botle ho fumanoe ho fokotsa maikutlo [26], haholo-holo ho batho ba lemaletseng litšoantšo tsa bootsoa [5], [27]. Ha mabaka ana ka bobeli (ke hore papali ea papali ea chelete le litšoantšo tsa bootsoa) bakeng sa tšebeliso ea inthanete li amahanngoa haholo le ho sebelisoa ha internet ka mathata [2], [3], [14], ho ka 'na ha e-ba joalo hore lintlha tsena li ka boela tsa kenya letsoho khoebong ea inthanete [14]. Ka sebele, ho 'nile ha boleloa hore liphello tse mpe joalo tsa ho kopanela boits'oetsong bo bobe, ka bobona, li ka kenya letsoho ho feta mekhoeng ena e kholo ea mathata ho leka ho baleha maikutlo ana a nyahamisang [28].

Le ha ho le joalo, joalo ka hajoale ho sa tsejoe haholo ka tšusumetso ea kelello ea kapele ea ho pepesetsoa marang-rang ho ba nang le boits'oaro bo bobe ba inthanete, nts'etsopele ea mehlala, ho sa tlohelle lipuisano tse nepahetseng, e ntse e le thata. Ha ho fanoa ka sena, thuto ea hajoale e batlile hore na ho pepesetsoa inthanete ho amme maemo a kelello a basebelisi ba marang-rang ba phahameng le ba tlase. Ho fihlela sena, sampole e ile ea hlahlojoa hore na ts'ebeliso ea marang-rang ea bona e senya bophelo ba bona ba letsatsi le letsatsi joang. Boikutlo ba barupeluoa le matšoenyeho li ile tsa lekanyetsoa, ​​ba ntan'o lumelloa ho fihlella liwebsaete life kapa life tseo ba li lakatsang, ebe ba hlahlojoa bocha bakeng sa maemo a bona a ho feto-fetoha le matšoenyeho a hona joale ho bona hore na ho pepesoa ke marang-rang ho na le litlamorao tse fapaneng ho lithahasello tsa marang-rang ho bao ba lemaletseng marang-rang ho bona ntle le boits'oaro bo joalo ba mathata.

Ntle le moo, ho netefatsa ho lumellana le lipatlisiso tsa pejana tsa litšobotsi tsa basebelisi ba marang-rang ba nang le bothata [11], [12], [17], [19], Phuputso ena e boetse e lekola kamano pakeng tsa ho lemalla marang-rang le matšoao a mang a kelello. Barupeluoa ba ile ba fuoa liteko tse ngata tsa kelello ho lekola likhahla tsa bona tsa khatello ea maikutlo le khatello ea maikutlo ea bona ea nako e telele. Ntle le moo, ho ile ha hlahlojoa mehato ea nalane boemong bona ba tšebelisano-'moho e amanang le schizotypy le litšobotsi tse tšoanang le tsa autism, joalo ka psychosis ka bobeli [14] le ho itšehla thajana [12] li kile tsa amahanngoa le bokhoba ba marang-rang pele.

mekhoa

Boitšoaro ba Melao

Tumello ea boithuto bakeng sa lipatlisiso tsena e fumanoe ho Lefapha la Komiti ea Litekanyetso tsa Mahlale a Psychology, Univesithi ea Swansea. Barupeluoa ba fane ka tumello e ngotsoeng e nang le tsebo ea ho nka karolo phuputsong ena, mme Komiti ea Boitšoaro e amohetse mokhoa ona oa tumello.

barupeluoa ba

Baithaopi ba 60 ba arabetse kopo ea ho nka karolo thutong ea kelello, e neng e phatlalalitsoe khamphaseng le ea Swansea University. Ho ne ho na le banna ba 27 le basali ba 33, ba nang le lilemo tse mpe tsa 24.0+Lilemo tsa 2.5. Ha ho le ea mong oa karolo ea fumaneng tefo bakeng sa ho nka karolo ha bona.

thepa

Teko ea Tlhatlhobo ea Inthanete (IAT) [29] ke sekhahla sa thepa ea 20 se koahelang tekanyo eo tšebeliso ea marang-rang e sitisang bophelo ba letsatsi le letsatsi (mosebetsi, boroko, likamano, jj), lintlha li tloha 20 ho 100. Ho tšepahala ka hare ho sekala ke 0.93.

Kemiso e ntle ea litheko tse mpe (PANAS) [30] ke lenane la lipotso tsa 20 le reretsoeng ho lekanya maikutlo a mabe le barupeluoa. Barupeluoa ba kopuoa ho khetha palo e lumellanang le botebo ba maikutlo a bona mabapi le ntho eo, ho tloha ho 1 = hanyane hanyane ho isa 5 = haholo), mme lintlha kaofela li ka tloha 10-50. Ho ts'epahala kahare ho sekala se nepahetseng le se fosahetseng ke 0.90.

Spielberger Trait-State Anxcare Inventory (STAI-T / S) [31] e lekola liponahatso tse amang, tsa kelello, le tsa 'mele tsa ho tšoenyeha ho latela lipaterone tsa nako e telele (tšobotsi ea ho tšoenyeha) le matšoenyeho a hona joale (boemo). Kakaretso eohle ea sekala ka seng e tloha 20 ho isa 80. Ho tšepahala ka hare ho sekala ke 0.93.

Becker's Depression Inventory (BDI) [32] ke lipotso tsa 21 tse hlahlobang matšoao a ho tepella maikutlo ka ho botsa ka maikutlo bekeng e fetileng. Lintlha li tsoa ho 0 ho 63. Ho tšepahala ka hare ho sekala ke 0.93.

Oxford Liverpool Inventory ea Maikutlo le Liphihlelo - Phetolelo e Khuts'oane (O-BOPHELO (B)) [33] ke sekhechana sa ntho ea 43 e kenyelletsang subscales tse 'ne (boiphihlelo bo sa tloaelehang, karohano ea kelello, anhedonia e sa utloahaleng le ho se lumellane) e etselitsoeng ho lekanya schizotypy ho baahi ba tloaelehileng. Sekala se na le ts'epo e ka hare lipakeng tsa 0.72 le 0.89.

Autistic Spectrum Quotient Lipotso (AQ) [34] e lekanya maemo a litšobotsi tsa botho tseo motho ea haelloang ke tlhahlobo ea ASD a ka bang le tsona. Potso ena e na le lipotso tsa 50, 'me ho fanoa ka lintlha tsa 32 tse akaretsang tse bonts'ang lefu la Asperger kapa autism e phahameng. Sekhahla sa kahare sa sekala ke 0.82.

Tsamaiso

Barupeluoa ba ne ba lutse ba le bang ka kamoreng e le 'ngoe ba bile ba lekoa ka bonngoe. Kamora kenyelletso e nyane thutong, ba ile ba koptjoa ho tlatsa betri ea liteko tsa kelello (ba fuoe ka tatellano ho barupeluoa, ntle le hore PANAS le STAI-S e ne e lula e phethela). Kamora ho qeta liteko, barupeluoa ba ile ba lumelloa ho kena inthaneteng ka khomphutha ka kamoreng ea liminera tsa 15. Litaba tsa libaka tsa marang-rang tseo ba li etetseng ha lia tlalehoa thutong ena, 'me barupeluoa ba ile ba bolelloa ka ho hlaka hore ho tla ba joalo. Ts'ebetso ena e ile ea amoheloa ho ba khothaletsa ho etela sebaka sefe kapa sefe seo ba ka se lakatsang, ho sa natsoe hore na litaba tsa sebaka seo sa marang-rang li ka nkuoa e le tse loketseng sechabeng. Kamora metsotso ea 15 ba ile ba botsoa hore ba tlatse lipotso tsa PANAS le STAI hape.

Results

Lethathamo 1 e bonts'a mekhoa (litlolo tse tloaelehileng) bakeng sa mehato eohle ea psychometric e nkiloeng pele ho pepesoa ke inthanete, le li-coefficients tsa bona tsa maiketsetso tsa Spearman ka tlhahlobo ea taolo ea inthanete (IAT). Tlhahlobo ea mekhoa e bonts'a hore sampole ka kakaretso e oetse kahare ho litekanyetso tse lebelletsoeng bakeng sa litlhahlobo tsena tsa psychometric. Litlhaloso tsa Spearman li senotse likamano tse matla pakeng tsa bokhoba ba marang-rang le khatello ea maikutlo (BDI), schizotypal impconive nonconformity (OLIFE IN), hape le autism-traits (AQ). Ho ne ho boetse ho e-na le likamano tse fokolang pakeng tsa ho lemalla marang-rang le ho tšoenyeha ka nako e telele (STAI-T), le maikutlo a mabe (PANAS-).

ponahalo e nyane

Tafole 1. Mekhoa e khelohileng (standard deviations) bakeng sa mehato eohle ea psychometric le li-coefficients tsa bona tsa taolo ea spearman ka liteko tsa ho lemalla inthanete (IAT).

doi: 10.1371 / journal.pone.0055162.t001

Tmohlala o ile a aroloa molemong oa palo ea IAT ho hlahisa lihlopha tsa ts'ebeliso ea marang-rang e tlase le e nang le bothata bo phahameng; moelelo oa IAT e ne e le 41, e boetse e nkuoa ho bontša tekanyo e itseng ea ts'ebeliso ea mathata [13]. Sena se hlahisitse sehlopha se nang le mathata a tlase (n = 28, bolela = 29.5+7.9; 13 e motona, e tšehali ea 15), le sehlopha sa ts'ebeliso e nang le bothata bo phahameng (n = 32, bolela 50.3+7.2; 18 e motona, e tšehali ea 18).

Setšoantšo sa 1 e bonts'a phetoho, e amanang le ts'ebeliso ea pele ho marang-rang, matšoenyehong a mmuso (SSAI), maikutlo a monate (PANAS +) le maikutlo a mabe (PANAS-) hang kamora ho pepesetsoa marang-rang bakeng sa lihlopha tsena tse peli. Ho bile le keketseho e kholo haholo ea hona joale ea matšoenyeho bakeng sa sehlopha sa mathata a tlase ha a bapisoa le sehlopha sa bothata bo boholo, Mann-Whitney U = 318.5, p<.05; sehlopha se sebelisang tlase se bonts'a matšoenyeho a eketsehileng a amanang le ts'ebeliso ea inthanete pele, Wilcoxon z = 2.09, p<.05, empa ha ho phetoho bakeng sa sehlopha se sebelisang haholo, p> .70. Ho bile le ho theoha ho hoholo hoa mohopolo o motle bakeng sa sehlopha se nang le bothata bo phahameng ha se bapisoa le sehlopha sa bothata bo tlase, U = 234.0, p<.001; sehlopha sa basebelisi ba tlase se sa bontsheng phetoho ho latela metheo ea motheo, p> .20, empa sehlopha sa basebelisi ba phahameng se bonts'a maikutlo a fokotsehileng haholo, z = 3.31, p<.001. Ho ne ho se na tšusumetso e kholo ea ho pepeseha ha marang-rang ka maikutlo a mabe bakeng sa sehlopha ka seng ps> .10.

ponahalo e nyane

Setšoantšo sa 1. E bonts'a phetoho lipakeng tsa ts'ebeliso ea post le ea pele ho marang-rang ho ngongoreho ea mmuso (SSAI), maikutlo a monate (PANAS +), le maikutlo a fosahetseng (PANAS-) bakeng sa lihlopha tse tlase tse sebelisang marang-rang (tse tlase) le lihlopha tse phahameng tse sebelisang marang-rang (tse phahameng). .

doi: 10.1371 / journal.pone.0055162.g001

Puisano

Boithuto ba hajoale bo reretsoe ho lekola tšusumetso e ka bang le phapang ea phello ea inthanete ho 'ba lemaletseng marang-rang' ha e bapisoa le ba sa sebeliseng mathata a mangata. Liphetho li bonts'itse tšusumetso e mpe ea ho pepesoa hoa marang-rang ka maikutlo a mabe a 'maraba a marang-rang'. Phello e fanoe ka mehlala ea maikutlo a 'marang-rang [14], [21], 'me ho fumanoe ho tšoanang ho bontšitsoeng mabapi le litlamorao tse mpe tsa ho pepesetsoa litšoantšo tsa bootsoa ho batho ba lemaletseng ho kopanela liphate inthaneteng [5], e ka fanang ka maikutlo a tšoanang lipakeng tsa litlatsetso tsena. Hape ho bohlokoa ho fana ka maikutlo a hore tšusumetso e mpe ea maikutlo ho ka nkoa e le ho tšoana le phello ea ho tlohela, e hlalositsoeng ha ho hlokahala bakeng sa ho khetholla lithethefatsi [1], [2], [27]. Phumano ena e fana ka maikutlo a hore, joalo ka mefuta e meng ea boits'oaro bo nang le mathata [5], [21], eTs'ebeliso e ngata ea inthanete e ka sirelisoa [14] le ho inolofatsa - ho etsa lintho tse etsang hore batho ba ferekane, ebe ho etsa hore ba ikopanye le ho feta hore ba se ke ba tsoa molekong o tlase. [21]. Ho haella ha ts'usumetso ea ho tšoenyeha ho bonoang ho basebelisi ba marang-rang ba nang le mathata a marang-rang ho boetse ho bonoa ho barekisi ba nang le bothata ba ho pepesehela maemo a kotsing [4], [25], hape e fana ka maikutlo a tšoanang lipakeng tsa bokhoba ba marang-rang le mefuta e meng ea boits'oaro bo nang le mathata.

E tlameha ho boleloa hore, e le tse peli tsa mekhoa ea bohlokoa ea inthanete bakeng sa palo e kholo ea basebelisi ba inthanete ke ho fumana litšoantšo tsa bootsoa le papali ea chelete [4], [5], e leng'me ho hlakile hore mesebetsi ena ea ho qetela e na le lits'ebeletso tsa ho lemala, e ka' na eaba liphello leha e le life tse amanang le 'ho lemalla lithethefatsi' ke 'nete ea mefuta e meng ea ho lemala (ke ho sheba litšoantšo tsa bootsoa kapa papali ea chelete).

Ntle le pontšo ea litlamorao tse fapaneng tsa kelello tsa phello ea marang-rang ho 'marang-rang a litheko tsa marang-rang', ho bile le lipatlisiso tse 'maloa tse neng li tšoaneloa ke ho fanoa. The litloaelano lipakeng tsa bokhoba ba marang-rang le khatello ea maikutlo [10], [11], 'me schizotypal nongenformity nonconformity [14], [17] li se li ntse li tsebahala, 'me li bonts'a hore mohlala oa hona joale o ts'oana le o ithutileng pele. Leha ho le joalo, tlhekefetso ea marang-rang e ne e amana haholo le litšobotsi tsa botho ke ho fumana lintho tse ncha, hape e ka tšoana le ea tlhaho ho mekhatlo e neng e thehiloe pele pakeng tsa ho ikarola sechabeng le bokhoba ba marang-rang [12]. Sephetho sena sa morao-rao se ka khahla ebile se loketse ho tsoela pele ho ithutoa, empa mabaka a mokhatlo ona ha a sa hlaka. E kanna ea ba ba nang le litšobotsi tse phahameng tsa autism ba kenella marang-rang haholoanyane e le mokhoa oa puisano o ratoang. Maemong ana, ts'ebeliso e phahameng ea marang-rang e kanna ea se be bothata sehlopheng sena. Ntle le moo, ho ba le ts'ebeliso ea marang-rang e kanna ea ba ntho e ikhethileng ka tlhaho, 'me boholo ba sena bo etsahala,' me motho ea nkang karolo ka tsela ena, hangata maemong a ho khetholoha sechabeng a ka ba le tšusumetso ho likarabo tse fuoeng autism tekanyo, e fana ka setsoalle se ts'oanang le litšobotsi tsa botho. Ho hlakile hore ho na le mosebetsi o eketsehileng sebakeng sena.

Ntle le liphumano tsena tse amanang le litšobotsi tsa kelello tsa ba nang le ts'ebeliso e mpe ea marang-rang, likarolo tse peli tsa data ea hona joale li bohlokoa. Taba ea pele, ka holim'a 50% ea sampole (32 / 60) e hlahisitse lintlha ho IAT e ka nkoang e emela boemo bo itseng ba bothata [26]. Hona ho ka emela mosebetsi oa ho thaepa sampole ho tsoa ho batho ba banyenyane mo khamphaseng ea univesithi, empa, haeba e ka phetoa, ho ka supa boemo ba bothata boo bo sa khothalletsoang. Karohano ea bong ba batho ba nang le bothata ba tšebeliso ea marang-rang e nang le mathata le ba se nang eona e ne e fana ka maikutlo a hore maikutlo a tloaelehileng a bokhoba ba marang-rang joaloka bothata ba banna ha a na motheo.

Ho na le mefokolo e 'maloa ea thuto ea hona joale e lokelang ho boleloa, le e ka rarolloang lipatlisisong tse latelang. Boitekong bona, barupeluoa ba ile ba fuoa feela 15 min expense in the internet, mme phello ea ho pepesoa ha sena maikutlong a bona e ile ea hlahlojoa. Le ha bolelele bona ba nako e lekane ho hlahisa phello ea mohatsong, joalo ka ha ho lekantsoe ke sekala sa hona joale, ha ho tsejoe hore na linako tse pepesitsoeng tse telele li ka ba neng hape, kapa matla a nakoana a liphetoho mokhoeng le matšoenyehong nakong ea ho pepesoa ke inthanete e tsejoang hona joale. Ntle le moo, litaba tsa liwebosaete tse eteloang ke karolo ke nako ha li ntse li pepesoa ha lia ka tsa hlahlojoa lipatlisisong tsena. Sena se entsoe ho khothaletsa barupeluoa ho phenya Inthanete ka bolokolohi ka tsela efe kapa efe eo ba e lakatsang. Leha ho le joalo, kaha ha ho na bonnete ba hore na barupeluoa ba ile ba etela libaka life, ho ke ke ha fihlela qeto ea hore tsena e tla ba libaka tse tloaelehileng tseo ba sebelisang marang-rang ho li hlahloba. Ehlile, haeba libaka tsena li kenyelletsa tse nang le litšoantšo tsa bootsoa kapa tsa papali ea chelete, ha ho na monyetla oa hore li ka eteloa maemong a hona joale. Ho joalo, ha ho hlake hore libaka tse joalo li tla tlaleha ka ts'epo hore li ntse li eteloa maemong a thuto e joalo. Leha ho le joalo, ha ho na le phokotso ena, ho ntse ho sa tsejoe hore na litšusumetso tse fumanoeng moelelong ona li ka bonoa ka mokhoa o ts'oanang maemong a ts'ebeliso, 'me sena e ntse e le sebaka se hlokang ho ithutoa.

Ha li kopantsoe hammoho le liphumano tse fetileng, liphetho tsena li thusa ho theha setšoantšo sa lisosa tsa ts'ebeliso e mpe ea marang-rang. Ehlile ke ba nang le khatello ea maikutlo ea nako e telele [11] le matšoenyeho [12], hammoho le ho itšehla thajana [13], le ho se tšoenyehe ka theknoloji ea lipale tse ncha [17], [19], li ka ba kotsing ea ho sebelisa ts'ebeliso ea marang-rang haholo [3], [21]. Leha ho le joalo, ts'ehetso e tlase ea batho bao ka nako eo ba nang le tšusumetso e mpe ho maikutlo a monate ka mor'a ho pepesetsoa marang-rang e ka fetoha ts'ebeliso e tsoelang pele ea ts'ebeliso ea inthanete e khothalletsang tšebeliso ea ts'ebeliso ea marang-rang ho lithethefatsi tsa inthanete.

Menehelo ea Mongoli

O amohela le ho hlophisa liteko: MR LAO PR. O entse liteko: MR. Ho hlahlobisisa data: MR PR. Li-reagents tse kentsoeng / lisebelisoa / lisebelisoa tsa tlhahlobo: LAO PR. Ngola pampiri: MR LAO RT PR.

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