Bokhoba ba Litšoantšo Tsa Bootsoa - Stimulus e Supranormal e Boletsoeng Mokokotlong oa Neuroplasticity (2013)

Ngaka Don Hilton

Donald L. Hilton e monyenyane, MD*

Lefapha la Neurosurgery, Univesithi ea Texas Health Sciences Centre San Antonio, USA

inahaneloang

Ho lemalla e bile polelo e arohanyang ha ho sebelisoa liketsong tse fapaneng tsa tlhekefetso tsa thobalano (CSBs), ho kenyelletsa tšebeliso e mpe ea litšoantšo tsa bootsoa. Leha ho na le kamohelo e ntseng e hola ea ho ba teng ha litlolo tsa tlholeho kapa tsa ts'ebetso ho latela kutloisiso e ntseng e eketseha ea ts'ebetso ea meputso ea mesolimbic dopaminergic, ho bile le maikutlo a ho ngolla li-CSB e le monyetla oa ho li sebelisa. Le ha ho becha ha li-pathological (PG) le botenya li fumane tlhokomelo e kholo lithutong tse sebetsang le tsa boits'oaro, bopaki bo ntse bo tšehetsa tlhaloso ea li-CSB e le tšibollo. Bopaki bona bo na le lintlha tse ngata, 'me bo thehiloe kutloisisong ea karolo ea "neuronal receptor" mabapi le ts'ebetso ea methapo, e tšehetsoang ke pono ea nalane ea boits'oaro. Ts'ebetso ena ea ho lemalla e ka holisoa ke boiphihlelo bo potlakileng le "susumetso e kholo" (polelo e qapiloeng ke Nikolaas Tinbergen) e hlahisoang ke litšoantšo tsa bootsoa tsa inthanete.

Keywords: boko; temallo; litšoantšo tsa bootsoa; neuroplasticity; thobalano

E amohetse: 4 Hlakubele 2013; E phatlalalitsoe: 19 Phupu ea 2013

Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology 2013

Donald L. Hilton. Ena ke sengoloa sa Open Access se ajoeng tlasa lipehelo tsa Laesense ea Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/), ho lumella tšebeliso eohle e seng ea khoebo, ho tsamaisa le ho hlahisa mofuta o mong le o mong ha feela mosebetsi oa pele o boletsoe ka nepo.

Tlhahiso: Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology 2013, 3: 20767 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/snp.v3i0.20767

Boholo ba maiketsetso mabapi le hore na boitšoaro bo bobe ba thobalano (CSB) ke bokhoba kapa bothata bo bong bo bobebe bo ka amana le kamoo re hlalosang polelo ka boeona. Ho hlakile hore lentsoe 'tlhekefetso' le sebelisitsoe ka mokhoa o sa tsitsang ho lebitso la bophelo bo botle ba kelello; ha ho hlokahale hore u shebe tse ling ntle le Buka ea ho hlahloba le ea Statistical ea Mathata a kelello (DSM) bakeng sa bopaki ba sena. Liphetolelong tse fetileng, boits'oaro ba bokhoba bo ne bo hlalosoa ka mokhoa o hlakileng likarolo tse fapaneng; DSM-5 e fetotse sena mme e ekelitse karohano e sebelisa tšebeliso ea mantsoe.

Libuka tsa DSM esale nalane e le thuto ea bomolimo, ke hore, e thehiloe boitsebisong ba boitshwaro le tlhahlobo-leseling ho e-na le ho tsepamisa maikutlo ho biology. Bohlokoa bo sebetsang ke hore DSM ka tsela ena e ka sebetsa joaloka bukana ea baoki lefapheng; ba ka tseba ho fumana le ho phekola bokuli ba kelello, ho kenyelletsa le bokhoba ba ho lemalla, ho ipapisitse le tlhahlobo le tlhahlobo-leseling, ho fapana le ho itšetleha ka liteko tsa tlhahlobo le liphetho tsa laboratori.

Ho utloisisa hore na ke hobaneng tlhekefetso ea mantsoe e sa lumellane le moelelo ona, ho bohlokoa ho hlahloba moelelo oa eona oa nalane ho lexicon. Polelo ea pele, mohlomong le ea pele, e tlalehiloeng ea temallo ea mantsoe maemong a bongaka e ne e le polelo ho Journal ea American Medical Association ho 1906: 'Ha ho na taba hore na motho o bua ka tloaelo ea opium, lefu la opium, kapa lekhoba la opium' (Jelliffe, 1906). Le ha hona joale ke ba fokolang ba hanyetsanang ba sebelisang lentsoe mabapi le lintho tse sebelisoang hampe ho tlhekefetso, ho fihlela joale ho bile le maikutlo mabapi le ts'ebeliso ea ona ho se ho thoeng ke tlholeho, ts'ebetso, kapa bokhoba ba tlhaho.

Ho 1983, Patrick Carnes o ile a kenyelletsa poleloana ea 'temallo ea botona le botšehali' e ipapisitse le litekanyetso tsa boitšoaro (Carnes, 1983). Ba bang ba ts'ehetse mohlala oa boits'oaro ba bokhoba ba thobalano; Nahana, mohlala, pampiri ea morao-rao ea Garcia le Thibaut, e neng e re, 'Boemo ba bokuli bo fetelletseng ba thobalano bo khahlisa mohopolo oa eona e le boits'oaro bo hlephisang boitšoaro, ho fapana le ho ba le khatello e fetelletseng, kapa khatello ea maikutlo' (Garcia & Thibaut, 2010).

Angres le Bettanardi-Angres (2008) o hlalositse ts'ebeliso e joalo e le 'tšebeliso e tsoelang pele ea lintho tse fetolang maikutlo kapa boitšoaro bo fapaneng (mohlala papali ea chelete, CSB) leha ho bile le litlamorao tse mpe', le Bostwick le Bucci (2008) ba sebelisitse lengolo la tlatsetso molemong oa litšoantšo tsa bootsoa tsa inthanete. Ho na le tloaelo e ntseng e hola ea ho sebelisa polelo ena ea bokhoba ba thobalano ho li-CSB, ka ho hlokomela hore maikutlo a ho susumetsa thobalano a rarahane, a na le mabaka a susumetsang, a susumetsang le a kelello a amang polelo ea sepheo sa ho ikatisa. Mohlala, Estellon le Mouras (2012) o hlalositse khokahano e tsoelang pele ea likhopolo tsa psychoanalytic le neurosciological joalo ka ha li sebelisoa ho tlhekefetso ea thobalano.

Litsebi tsa kelello tsa bokhoba ba lithethefatsi li ntse li tšehetsa khopolo ea boteng ba litlolo tsa tlhaho, ha bopaki ba tšebetso le ba cellular bo ntse bo bokellana. Moetso ona o ipapisitse le sethala se khothatsang se tsoang molemong oa moputso oa mesolimbic o matla, o nang le ts'ebetso ea dopamine-Mediated salience drive e tlohang bohareng ba ts'ebetso ho ea ho lits'ebetso tse ling tsa bohlokoa bakeng sa ho pholoha. Ts'ebetso ena e thusa le ho ntlafatsa ho ithuta ha li-neuronal ka phetoho ea Micro- and macro-neuroplastic. Boqhekanyetsi ha bo sa hlalosoa feela ka mekhoa ea boitšoaro.

Boitšoaro ba batho ba ho kopanya malebela mabapi le lijo le thobalano bo rarahane ho feta tlhahiso e bonolo. Georgiadis (2012) e boletse hore likamano tsa botona le botšehali tsa batho li bonts'a ho ba le karolo e hlakileng ea libaka tse phahameng tsa "cortical cortical", mohlomong li hatisa "mesebetsi ea batho" ka mokhoa o tšoanang. Likenyelletso tse phahameng tse tsoang libakeng tse ka pele li ka fetolela phello ea meputso ea mesencephalic dopaminergic e potlakisang karolo ea moputso oa "nucleus accumbens" - "ventral striatal". Leha ho le joalo, lits'oants'o tse matla tsa ho ja le ho ikatisa li hlahisoa ka mokhoa o atlehileng mefuteng e ntseng e phela, le mela e sa hlahiseng lihlahisoa ka mokhoa o nepahetseng oa ho hlahisa matla, ka lebaka lefe, e felile. Ho sa tsotelehe hore na "cortical" e sebetsa hantle hakae ka thobalano le mefuta e meng ea boithabiso, likhatello tsa thuto ea ho iphetola ha lintho li etsa hore qetellong litumo tsa boithabiso li fumanehe ho mefuta e atlehileng ea bioloji, ho kenyeletsoa le batho.

Bopaki bo tšehetsang mohopolo oa bokhoba ba tlhaho bo bongata haholo, 'me mohala oa boits'oaro e mpa e le karolo e le' ngoe feela ea kholo ea kholo ea lithuto tse tšehetsang. Lithuto tse sebetsang tsa monahano, tse amanang le boits'oaro, li thahasellisa ka ho hlakileng, empa lintlha tsa metabolic le genetic li ntse li sebetsa haholoanyane. E ne e se e le lilemo tse fetang leshome tse fetileng moo kananelo e ileng ea qala ho eketseha mabapi le ho ba teng ha lithethefatsi tsa ts'ebetso (Holden, 2001). Tlhokomeliso ena e hlahisitse kholo ea kutloisiso ea karolo ea meputso ea mesolimbic dopaminergic tseleng ea litheko le lithethefatsi tsa tlhaho (Nestler, 2005, 2008), ts'ebetso e ileng ea fella ka tlhaloso ea American Society of Addiction Medicine's (ASAM) ka Phato 2011 (e tsejoang e le tlhaloso e telele ea ASAM). Tlhaloso e ncha ea ASAM e hlalosa ho lemalla joala e le lefu le sa foleng la boko le amang meputso, tšusumetso le mekhoa ea ho hopola, 'me le kopanya lithethefatsi le boitšoaro bo hlephileng tlas'a sekhele se tloaelehileng.

Ho kenyelletsoa ha karolo e nyane mabapi le bokhoba ba boits'oaro ho DSM-5 hape ho amoheloa ka phetoho ena ea pono mabapi le bokhoba ba tlhaho. Leha ho le joalo, karolo ena e nyane e kenyelletsa ts'ebetso e le 'ngoe feela ea bokhoba ba ts'ebetso, ho becha ha li-pathological (PG) (Reuter et al., 2005), ha re ntse re theola bothata ba lipapali tsa inthanete, tšebeliso e fetelletseng ea lijo le thobalano, le lits'ebetso tse ling tsa ts'ebeliso ea karolo e bitsoang 'Maemo a ho Ithuta Haholoanyane,' kapa ho ba hlokomoloha ka botlalo. Le ha e ntse e tsamaellana le tlhaiso-leseling ea morao-rao ea boits'oaro le ts'ebetso eo PG e seng e nkuoa e le mohlala o haufi oa ts'ebeliso e mpe ea lithethefatsi ho fapana le mathata a tlhekefetsang (El-Guebaly, Mudry, Zohar, Tavares, & Potenza 2011), ka lebaka leo ho kopanya label ea bokhoba ba lithethefatsi, ho ke ke ha lumellana ho hana lebitso le tšoanang le lekhoba la litšoantšo tsa bootsoa Inthaneteng. Ke ho se lumellane hona ho tšehetsang taba ea hore khethollo ea setso le ea lipolotiki e ka nyenyefatsa boitšoaro bo bobe ba botona le botšehali.

Hoa makatsa hore ebe ho lemalla lijo ho ke keng ha kenyelletsoa ho lemalla boitšoaro, ho sa tsotellehe lipatlisiso tse bontšang ho fokotseha ha dopaminergic ho fumanoa ka botenya (Wang et al., 2001), ka ts'ebetso e ts'oanolloang ka ho ja lijo le ho tloaeleha ha motlakase oa 'mele (BMI) (Steele et al., 2010). Khopolo ea 'stimulus supranormal', e ipiletsang ka nako ea Nikolaas Tinbergen (Tinbergen, 1951), e sa tsoa hlalosoa moelelong oa monate o matla o fetang moputso oa k'hok'heine, o ts'ehetsang moelelo oa bokhoba ba lijo (Lenoir, Serre, Laurine, & Ahmed, 2007). Ka lekhetlo la pele Tinbergen o ile a fumana hore linonyana, lirurubele le liphoofolo tse ling li ka qhekelloa ka ho khetha li-substitutes tse entsoeng ka ho khetheha hore li khahle ho feta mahe a tloaelehileng a mahe le balekane. Ha e le hantle, ho na le ho hloka mosebetsi o ts'oanang le oa boits'oaro ka ho ithuta ho lemalla ho kopanela liphate ho batho, ho bapisoa le papali ea chelete le lithethefatsi tsa lijo, empa ho ka phehisana hore boitšoaro bo bong le bo bong bo ka kenyelletsa tšusumetso e phahameng. Deirdre Barrett (2010e kenyelelitse litšoantšo tsa bootsoa e le mohlala oa tšusumetso e ikhethang.

Ts'ehetso ea ho ba teng ha litlolo tsa ts'ebetso, leha ho le joalo, e eketsehile ka kutloisiso ea rona ea polaptic le dendritic.
Na ho na le bopaki bo tšehetsang boteng ba bokhoba ba litšoantšiso tsa bootsoa? Ho ipapisitse le seo motho a se amohelang, kapa a ka se utloisisang, joalo ka bopaki, mme ona ke ts'ebetso ea pono le thuto. Boikutlo bo ka hlahisa leeme, mme maikutlo a rona a susumetsoa ke lintlha tse kang liphihlelo tsa rona tsa thuto le tsa bophelo. Se ka reng se se na moelelo ho e mong e kanna ea ba bopaki bo hlakileng ho e mong ho latela phapang ea tsebo e sa thekeseleng tšimong eo ho buuoang ka eona. Joalokaha TS Eliot a boletse, 'tsebo e re lahlehetseng tsebong e kae?' (TS Eliot, Choruse e tsoang Lefika, ho qala stanza, 1934).

Tlhahisoleseling, kapa datha, e fetoha tsebo ha e hlophisetsoa mohopolong le joalo ka mohopolo o hokahantsoeng le lits'ebetso tsa tumelo, kapa li-paradigms. Kuhn (1962 /2012) o hlokometse hore ha paradigms e hlophisitsoeng e qholotsoa ke ho se lumellane, bo-rasaense ba tloaetse ho sireletsa boemo ho fihlela ho hlakile hore bopaki le tlhaiso-leseling e hlahisitseng boemo ha e sa sebetsa, ka hona ho fana ka phetoho ea paradigm. Liphetoho tsa paradigm ha li utloe bohloko, joalo ka Galileo, Ignaz Semmelweis le ba bang ba phephetsang thuto ea thuto e atileng.

Paradigm ea pele ea lithethefatsi e hlalositsoe feela ho ipapisitsoe le litekanyetso tsa boits'oaro. Seo Kuhn a neng a ka re ke "koluoa" ea paradigmatic se hlahile ka thuto ea methapo ea kutlo e hlahisang seo e leng ntho e ts'oanang - mme, ho hlakile hore ho ba boits'oaro bo thata, paradigm ea tlholisano ka kenyelletso ea mohopolo oa boits'oaro ba boits'oaro. Ho tloha ntlheng ea pono ea methapo ea kutlo, tsena ehlile lia tšoana, ebile lia kopanya, ke li-paradigms, joalo ka ha mekhoa ea khale ea ho hlahloba e hlalosang bokhoba ba lithethefatsi e bonahala ho ba bang (Garcia & Thibaut, 2010) ho makalla batho ba hlalosang litloaelo tsa boits'oaro.

Bothata bona bo teng molemong oa boits'oaro, haholoholo mabapi le ho bitsa li-CSB e le tse lemalloang. Mohlala, pampiri e tšehetsang mohopolo oa bokhoba ba tlhaho, haholo-holo bo shebaneng le litšoantšo tsa bootsoa (Hilton & Watts, 2011), a re likokoana-hloko tse nyane le tse kholo li tiisa boteng ba lithethefatsi tse joalo. Karabelo (Reid, Carpenter, & Fong, 2011) a lekola hore lithuto tse boletsoeng tse tšehetsang macrocopic neuroplasticity ka boits'oaro bo tlatselletsang, ho ikamahanya le maemo, ha li na tšusumetso ho khothong mabapi le bokhoba ba tahi. Ho shebana le liphetoho life tse ka amanang le litlamorao tsa metabolic (tsoekere e phahameng ea mali, litekanyetso tse phahameng tsa lipid, joalo-joalo) karabelo ena e leleka tšusumetso ea neuroplastic e amanang le ho ithuta. Ba belaella tšibollo efe kapa efe ea tlhaho e bakang liphetoho tsa morphologic, ba theola bopaki bo netefatsang ho ba teng ha lijo kapa ho lemalla lithethefatsi, mme ka ho hlaka ba nahana hore boitšoaro bona bo ka ama liphetoho tsa moriana bokong. Ho khahlisang, ba amohela hore ba amohela 'mochini oa hoqetela… ha lintho li kenelletse', ka tsela eo ba bonts'a khanyetsano eo Kuhn a e boletseng pele ea liphetoho lipuong tsa khale tsa hore lintho li ka baka ts'ebeliso ea 'nete. Lekhalo lena lipakeng tsa boitshwaro le biologic paradigms le bonahatsoa hape tekong ea bona ea bohlokoa ba biolo ea limolek'hule tsekong ea ho lemalla. Litsebi tsa boitšoaro bo tiileng li fokotsa botebo ba DeltaFosB, ka mohlala, ho lemalla, le opine hore DeltaFosB e ke ke ea tsebisa khang ea litšoantšo tsa bootsoa hobane ha ho na lithuto tsa batho tse etsang lipatlisiso tsa DeltaFosB ka ho khetheha mabapi le litšoantšo tsa bootsoa.

Ha re buisana ka maikutlo a bona, Reid et al. qotsa mosebetsi oa bona 'me ba qobe ho supa ho kopanela likobo e le ho ka bang kotsi. Ba bona boits'oaro bo bobe ba ho kenyelletsa, ebang ke ho sebelisa koae, lijo, joala, kapa thobalano, joaloka mathata a arohaneng (joalo ka DSM) mme ka hona ba hanana le kakaretso e ngoe le e 'ngoe e le' ho sa inahaneleng saense '(Reid et al., 2011). Boemo bona ha bo makatse ha bo nkuoa boemong ba paradigm eo ba neng ba koetliselitsoe ho eona, e tsepamisitseng maikutlo hodima boitšoaro ho fapana le ho kenyelletsa bopaki bo hlahang ba tlhaho. 'Mali o khothaletsoa ho bala maikutlo a hae mabapi le karabelo ea Reid ea Hilton le Watts hang-hang ho latela karabelo ea karabo. Taba ea hore karohano ea tumello ea methapo ea kutlo e hlahisitse bothata ba Kuhnian, kaha maikutlo ana a kopanya karolo e ncha le e kopaneng ea tlhaho le boits'oaro bo hlalosang tlhekefetso holima lintho le boits'oaro.

Kakaretso e 'ngoe ea likhanyetsano khahlano le mohopolo oa likamano tsa botona le botšehali e fumanehang ho Khopolo-taba ea ho lemalla ho kopanela liphate ke David Ley. Buka ena e boetse e hlalosa li-CSB ho tloha boemong ba boits'oaro, ka bopaki ba neurobiological bo tsebisang ngangisano ka boteng ba bokhoba ba tlholeho bo lahliloeng ka qotsulo e boletsoeng pejana ho tsoa karabong ea Reid ho baphatlalatsi ba Hilton-Watts: 'khopolo-taba eseng saense'.

Ho khahlisang, boko bo bonoa ke Ley e le "lebokose le letšo" le lesootho "leo re sa tsoa qala ho le utloisisa ... boits'oaro bo rarahaneng bo joalo ka thobalano bo ts'episa ho ba selotho ka lilemo tse ngata tse tlang tse tlang '(Ley, 2012). Hape, lekhalo lena la paradigmatic le bonoa ka har'a lesira le koahelang sephiri le 'moelelo', le ts'episo ea hore re ke ke ra utloisisa lilemo tse ngata tsa thobalano. ka sebele eseng hona joale!

Ho fapana le ho sheba hore na ts'ebetso ea bokhoba e kenyelletsa ho kenya lithethefatsi kapa ho sheba litšoantšo tse tsosang takatso ea botona kapa botšehali, tsebo e eketsehileng ea methapo ea methapo ea kutlo e re lumella ho utloisisa hore ho lemalla ho kenyelletsa le ho fetola biology boemong ba synaptic, ebe bo ama boitshwaro bo latelang. Hona joale ts'ebeliso ea methapo ea kutlo e se e batla e le mabapi le ts'ebetso ea neuronal receptor, modulation, le polasetiki e latelang kaha e mabapi le boitšoaro bo senya le bo phetetsang.

Ba bang ba batla tekanyetso e phahameng ea bopaki ba thobalano ho feta boits'oaro le lintho tse ling ha ho tluoa mokhoeng oa ho hlalosa bokhoba. Bakeng sa
mohlala, pono e tiileng ea boits'oaro e bonts'itsoe ha ho phatlalatsoa hore bakeng sa litšoantšo tsa bootsoa ho thoe li lemaletse, re tla tlameha ho lemalla bana ba motho a le mong, ho sireletsa e mong, ho hlahloba li-cohorts pele le kamora ho bapisa sephetho sa boits'oaro (Clark-Flory, 2012). Ho hlakile hore thuto ena e ke ke ea etsoa, ​​ha ho nahanoa ka litaba tsa boits'oaro tse amehang. Leha ho le joalo, re nahana hore le ba tšehetsang pono ena ea boits'oaro ba ka amohela mohopolo oa hore koae e lemalla ntle le ho batla thuto e ts'oanang e lebelletsoeng ho bana. Ka mantsoe a mang, thuto ea tebello e bapisoang le koae e hokae baneng? E arolang bana, e fana ka lisakerete tse halofo, e sireletsa tse ling, ebe e li latela nako e telele? Ha e eo, ehlile, ebile e ke ke ea hlola e ba teng, ka hona ba bang ba ntse ba tla re ho tsuba ha ho lemalle. Ho boletse batsamaisi ba supileng ba koae kapela komiti e nyane ea Henry Waxman ea Bophelo le Tikoloho ka 1994: ka tatellano, e mong le e mong o ile a re 'Che' ha a botsoa hore na ho tsuba ho lemalletse, ho kenyelletsa ho tšehetsa bopaki ba litsebi (UCSF Tobacco Control Archives, 1994). Leha ho le joalo ho ipapisitse le sehlopha se batsi sa lipatlisiso, hoo e batlang e le motho e mong le e mong - ntle le batsamaisi bana ba koae le litsebi tsa bona - ba lumela hore bopaki bo teng bakeng sa bokhoba ba koae. Haele hantle, lithuto tsa k'hok'heine, heroine le joala li hokae?

Phapang e kholo ke hore joale re utloisisa kutloisiso ea methapo ea kutlo ea neuroplasticity le neuronal receptor, ho kenyelletsa le nicotinic acetylcholine, opioid, glutamate le dopamine receptors, ho feta kamoo re neng re le ka teng nakong e fetileng. Joale re ka bona bokhoba ba ho tsuba, ebang ke ho tsuba, koae, kapa thobalano, ka lense ea "neural receptor" le phetoho ea neuroplastic e latelang, eseng feela ka pono ea boits'oaro.

Ho amohela bopaki bo tšehetsang mohopolo oa bokhoba ba thobalano, ho bohlokoa ho ba le kutloisiso ea mehopolo ea hajoale ea ho ithuta ka lisele le polasetiki. Dendritic arborization le liphetoho tse ling tsa lisele li etella pele ho betla ha gyral (Zatorre, Field, & Johansen-Berg, 2012) ka ho ithuta, 'me ho ipapisa le moputso ha ho fapane. Bokhoba ba hona e ba mofuta o matla oa ho ithuta, 'me ho tsamaisoa ha methapo ea pelo ho ba kotsi (Kauer & Malenka, 2007). Lithuto tse amanang le bokhoba ke tšebeliso ea thuto e thehiloeng moputsong mohlaleng ona, ka hona e kenyelletsa lintlha tse tšoanang tsa mongolo le li-neurotransmitters. Mohlala, DeltaFosB e fumanoe lilemong tse fetang tse leshome tse fetileng hore e phahamisoe ka mokhoa o sa ts'oaneng ho li-neuron tse mahareng tsa "li-nucleus" tse bokellaneng bokong ba liphoofolo tse lemaletseng lithethefatsi tse sebelisanang le lithethefatsi (Kelz et al., 1999). Boithuto ba morao-rao bo bontšitse hore e phahame liseleng tsena tse tšoanang ho liphoofolo tse bonts'a ho phahama ho eketsehileng ha meputso ea tlhaho, ho kenyelletsa lijo le thobalano (Nestler, 2005).

Maemo a Supraphysiologic a DeltaFosB a shebahala a bonts'a libaka tsa hyperconsumptive tsa bokhoba ba tlhaho (Nestler, 2008). DeltaFosB ha e tšoae lesupa feela empa e boetse e fana ka sebopeho sa boitšoaro ba hyperconsumptive (joalo ka sebapali sa neuroplasticity) e bontšitsoe hantle. Ho sebelisitsoe mekhoa e 'meli e amanang haufi-ufi ho etsa liphatsa tsa lefutso DeltaFosB e ikemetseng ea boitšoaro bo fapaneng. E ngoe e kenyelletsa ho hlahisa mela ea litoeba tsa bitransgenic tse khethollang otaxpress DeltaFosB ka kotloloho libakeng tsa meputso ea striatal, 'me ea bobeli e kenyelletsa phetisetso ea liphatsa tsa lefutso ka li-vector tse amanang le li-virus ho liphoofolo tse kholo, tse ntan'o qobella ho fetisa kapa ho nyenyefatsa ha DeltaFosB. Liphoofolo tsena tse fetotsoeng ka liphatsa tsa lefutso li bonts'a boitšoaro bo bobe ba hyperconsumptive bo kenyeletsang lijo (Olausson et al., 2006), wheel wheel (Werme et al., 2002), le thobalano (Wallace et al., 2008). Mohlala, ha oxpxpression ea DeltaFosB e kenngoa ka har'a livaerase tsena ka har'a liphoofolo tse sebetsang, ba bonts'itse ntlafatso ea tšebetso ea thobalano (Hedges, Chakravarty, Nestler, Meisel, 2009; Wallace et al., 2008). Ka lehlakoreng le leng, khatello ea DeltaFosB e fokotsa ts'ebetso (Pitchers et al., 2010), ka hona, e tiisa hore e na le karolo ho "phostologic homeostasis" e tloaelehileng.

Joale ho bonahala eka DeltaFosB ke phetoho ea molek'hule e fetohang lijaneng tse ling tsa gene, e ntan'o fetola phetoho ea methapo ea methapo ea methapo liseleng tsena; ka mantsoe a mang, ba khothalletsa ho ithuta ha neuronal. DeltaFosB e eketsa letsoalo la mokokotlo oa dendritic mokokotlong oa "spiny" ho "nucleus" e bokellanang le liphoofolo tse lemalloang nakong ea nako e telele ea ho khaotsa ho tsitsisa ka ho tsosa protheine ea Cdk5, ka hona e fetoha borokho ho neuroplasticity e atolositsoeng (Bibb et al., 2001; Norrholm et al., 2003). DeltaFosB e bonts'itsoe e sebetsa ho loop e ntle ea karabo le calcium / Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II ho hlahisa likarabo tsa cellular tsa neuroplastic ho lemaletseng koae. Taba ea bohlokoa ke hore, mokhatlo ona o ile oa bontšoa hape, ka lekhetlo la pele, bokhobeng ba koae ea batho (Robison et al., 2013).

Bopaki ba morao-rao bo bonts'itse hore DeltaFosB e bohlokoa ho polasetiki ena ea dendritic ka phello ea eona tsamaisong ea meputso ea mesolimbic ho moputso oa thobalano le lithethefatsi, e leng tšusumetso e kopantsoeng le D1 dopamine receptor ho li-nucleus accumbens (Pitchers et al., 2013). Dopamine e bohlokoa ho abeng boits'oaro ba maikutlo a thobalano (Berridge & Robinson, 1998), 'Me liphuputso tsa morao-rao li tšehetsa karolo ea physiologic ts'ebetsong ea thobalano le ka phello ea eona le ts'ebelisano le li-hypothalamic oxytocinergic system (Baskerville, Allard, Wayman, & Douglas., 2009; Succu et al., 2007). Tšusumetso ena e bolokiloe ka bophara phyla (Kleitz-Nelson, Dominguez, & Ball, 2010; Kleitz-Nelson, Dominguez, Cornil, le Ball, 2010, Pfaus, 2010), ho netefatsa hore thobalano, e bohlokoa ho pholoheng ea mefuta, e lula e le bohlokoa. Hypersexuality ka lebaka la ho kenella ha dopaminergic pharmacologic ke mokhoa o tsejoang oa kalafo e joalo, 'me e amana le' tlhoko e fetisisang ea cue-triggered incentive salience-based motivation '(Politis et al., 2013). Ho joalo, ho lemalla ho ka hlalosoa e le ho hloka botsitso. Sebakeng sa ho batla se tla ntlafatsa pholoho, ba lemaletseng ba susumetsoa ke takatso ea ho batla leha e ka ba kotsi, ke ts'ebetso ea neuroplastic e khutlisang ntlha e behiloeng ea hedonistic.

Re bona tšebetso ena ea methapo ea kutlo maemong a lisele ka ho arola dendritic arborization le liphetoho tse ling tsa lisele tse fanang ka 'scaffolding' ea methapo bakeng sa li-synapses tse ncha. Litakatso tse matla tse amanang le satiation e latelang li hlahisitse liphetoho tsena tsa micromorphologic, joalo ka ha ho bonts'itsoe ke mefuta e fapaneng ea ho felloa ke matla joalo ka cocaine (Robinson & Kolb, 1999), amphetamine (Li, Kolb, & Robinson, 2003), letsoai (Roitman, Na, Anderson, Jones, & Berstein, 2002), le thobalano (Pitchers, Balfour et al., 2012). Mefuta ea ho fokotsa letsoai e bontšitsoe hore e ka kopanya likarolo tse tšoanang tsa mofuta oa koae, 'me sena se khothaletsoa ke bahanyetsi ba dopamine, ba fana ka maikutlo a hore tlhekefetso ea lithethefatsi e senya mekhoa ea khale ea tšusumetso e bohlokoa ho pholoheng (Liedtke et al., 2011).

Ho ts'oaroa ha li-receptor tsa Glutamate ke sesupo sa polasetiki ea synaptic. Ho etsa thobalano, joalo ka moputso o matla oa bokong, ho bonts'itse bopaki ba keketseho e khutsitseng, e bonts'ang keketseho ea palo ea li-receptor tsa NMDA-AMPA, harbinger ea polasetiki ea morao-rao ea synaptic le ho ithuta ha li-synapses tsena hamorao li sa ngolisoe, tse ts'oanang le tse etsahalang ka koae sebelisa (Pitchers, Schmid et al., 2012). Ka ho khetheha, phetoho ena ea karo-karolelano e ne e le kapele ebile e tšoarella, 'me e fumanoe ka li-neurus tse bokellanang le li-neurons tse amanang le preortal cortex, sebaka seo e leng sa bohlokoa ho sebelisanang le CSBs (Pitchers, Schmid et al., 2012). Ho sena, thobalano e ikhethile har'a meputso ea tlhaho, ka hore moputso oa lijo ha oa ka oa baka phetoho ena e ts'oanang ea polasetiki ea synaptic (Chen et al., 2008). Ka mokhoa o makatsang, liphetoho tsa neuroplastic ho dendritic morphology le ho ts'oaroa ke glutamate receptor li ile tsa lumellana le boiphihlelo bo eketsehileng ba thobalano le ho eketseha ha maikutlo a amphetamine, e leng tšobotsi e 'ngoe ea ho lemalla. Le kamora matsatsi a 28, ha liphetoho tsena li kokobela, maikutlo a susumetsang takatso ea thobalano ho amphetamine a phehella (Pitchers et al., 2013), ho matlafatsa le ho feta bopaki ba bokhoba ba tlhaho.

Neuroplasticity ka lebaka la ho ithuta ha e bonoe feela ka liphetoho tse ngata haholo, joalo ka arborization, empa le macroscopically le gyral sculpting (Zatorre et al., 2012). Lithuto tse ngata lilemong tse mashome a mabeli tse fetileng li netefalitse taba ea hore ho ithuta ho fetola 'mele. Litempele tse fapaneng tsa ho ithuta joalo ka mmino (Elbert, Pantev, Wienbruch, Rockstroh, & Taub, 1995; Schwenkreis et al., 2007), juggling (Draganski et al., 2004), ho khanna litekesi (Maguire, Woollett, & Spiers, 2006), le ho ithuta ka matla (Draganski et al., 2006) kaofela li bonts'itsoe hore li ama liphetoho tsa morphologic ho gyri, mme ho bonahala ha neuroplasticity e mpe ho sa sebelisoe (Coq & Xerri, 1999).

Sena se tsamaellana le polelo ea Kauer le Malenka, pampiring ea bona e mabapi le polasetiki ea synaptic le bokhoba ba tahi, ea hore 'bokhoba ba tahi bo emela mokhoa oa ho ithuta le ho hopola o matla' 2007). Ka hona ha ho makatse ho tseba hore lithuto tsa bokhoba ba tahi li tsamaisana le cortical atresia macroscopically. Hoo e batlang e le lipatlisiso tsohle tse mabapi le bokhoba ba tahi li bontšitse ho hlaka ha libaka tse ngata tsa boko, haholoholo tse amanang le taolo ea litekanyetso tsa pele le litsi tsa meputso. Sena ke 'nete bakeng sa bokhoba ba lithethefatsi tse kang cocaine (Franklin et al., 2002), methamphetamine (Thompson et al., 2004), le li-opioids (Lyoo et al., 2005), hape le maemo a boits'oaro a amanang le ts'oaetso ea methapo ea tlhaho ea moputso oa tlhaho le boits'oaro bo joalo ka lijo (Pannacciulli et al., 2006), thobalano (Schiffer et al., 2007), le bokhoba ba inthanete (Yuan, Quin, Lui, & Tian, 2011; Zhou et al., 2011).

Pholoso ho tsoa bokhobeng e kopantsoe le liphetoho tse ntle tsa neuroplastic hape, joalo ka ho khutlela ho lipalo tse tloaelehileng tsa gyral ka ho hlaphoheloa ho tsoa lemeng la methamphetamine (Kim et al., 2006), le ho holisa litaba tsa bohlooho kamora 'kalafo ea kelello (Hölzel et al., 2011). Phetoho ena e tšehetsa boikemelo leha e le sepheo sa tumellano ea meralo ea lipampiri tsena, joalo ka ha ho bontšitsoe lithutong tsa polasetiki tse ithutoang pejana.

Ka tlhaho boko ba rona bo batla mokhoa o sa tloaelehang, 'me thobalano e ka beha moputso o matla ka mokhoa o mocha. Likokoana-hloko tsa khale li bonts'a boits'oaro ba trophic bo thusang ho phela, mme bopaki bo teng ba ts'usumetso e amanang le pholoho e amanang le dopamine ho baholo-holo ba bona. Tšusumetso e matlafalitsoeng ke dopamine e hlahisitsoeng li-amniotes tsa pele ho tloha mesencephalon ea khale ho ea telencephalon e tsoelang pele ho rarahana nakong eohle ea phylogeny (Yamamoto & Vernier, 2011). Ho totobetse hore, ts'ebetso ea batho ba thobalano le tšusumetso ea nakoana ea boipheliso le theko ea moputso li rarahane haholo (Georgiadis, 2012) ho feta trophism ea unicellular, empa litsi tsa khale tsa mesolimbic dopaminergic tse arolelanang litšebelisano tsena tsa mantlha.

'Hypersexual syndrome', ha e ntse e hlalosoa ka mokhoa o hlalosang, e haelloa ke polelo 'tlatsetso ea thobalano' ha e hlalosa boemo ba hajoale ba kutloisiso ea li-CSB. E hlokomoloha lilemo tse mashome a mabeli tsa lipatlisiso mabapi le hore na ho ithuta ho fetola boko joang ka bobeli- le macroscopically, mme e sitisa litsebi le setjhaba ho se lokolle moputso o matla ka ho fetisisa oa tlhaho oa dopaminergic tsamaisong ea methapo, bohlola ba botona le botšehali (Georgiadis, 2006), ho tsoa ho thuto ea neuroplastic.

Litšoantšo tse tsosang takatso ke laboratori e phethahetseng bakeng sa thuto ena ea libuka tse ts'oanang le motlakase o matla oa khatello. Ho batlisisa ka hloko le ho tobetsa, ho batla taba e phethahetseng, ke boikoetliso ba ho ithuta ka methapo ea kutlo. Ha e le hantle, e tšoantšetsa khopolo ea Tinbergen ea 'boipheliso bo phahameng' (Tinbergen, 1951), ka matsoho a polasetiki a ntlafalitsoeng a hlahisitsoeng ka mokhoa o sa lekanyetsoang ho batho ba nang le morero o tšoanang le lipapali tsa butterfly tse matlafetseng tsa Tinbergen le Magnus; banna ba mefuta e 'ngoe le e' ngoe ba khetha mokhoa oa tlhaho oa ho iphetola ha tlhaho (Magnus, 1958;; Tinbergen, 1951). Ka kutloisiso ena, popo e ntlafalitsoeng e fana, ka puo ea tšoantšetso, phello e ts'oanang le pheromone ho banna ba banna, joalo ka tšoele, e leng 'ho thibela boits'oaro' le 'ho sitisa puisano pele ho thobalano lipakeng tsa bong ka ho kenella sepakapakeng' (Gaston, Shorey, & Saario, 1967).

Nahana ka batho ba babeli ba nahanang ka botebo, ba kentsoeng likhomphutha tsa bona ka bobeli, ba leka ho fumana moputso o kopanetsoeng nako le nako. Ka bobeli ba qeta lihora tse ngata bosiu ba le mosebetsing oa bona, 'me ba na le nako e itseng, ho fihlela ba khathetse. Mosebetsi le likamano tsa hau li ameha hampe, empa ha li khone ho emisa. E mong o shebella litšoantšo tse manyala tse hlephisang boitšoaro, a batla sekhechana se nepahetseng sa ho felisoa ka thobalano; e ngoe e kenelletse papaling ea papali ea inthanete. Moputso o le mong ke ho ipholla litho, le chelete, empa DSM-5 e khetholla poker feela hore e le lemallo. Sena se ka bobeli ka boits'oaro le tlhaho.

Esita le maikutlo a sechaba a bonahala a ntse a leka ho hlalosa ts'ebetso ena ea biologic, joaloka polelong ena e tsoang ho Naomi Wolf; 'Ka lekhetlo la pele historing ea batho, litšoantšo' matla le ho hlohlelletsa li fetisitse tsa basali ba sebele ba hlobotse. Kajeno basali ba hlobotseng ba hlobotse ba le mpe feela "(Wolf, 2003). Feela joalokaha litšoantšo tsa "Pornbridge 'tsa Tinbergen tsa Magnus' me tsa Magnus 'li ne li atleha ho hlōlisana le banna ka mokhoa oa litšenyehelo tsa basali ba sebele (Magnus, 1958;; Tinbergen, 1951), re bona ts'ebetso ena e etsahala ho batho.

Esita le haeba litšoantšo tse manyala tse hlephisang boitšoaro li ka lemalla, potso e sala ho ba bang, na e kotsi? Litaba tsa litšoantšo tse manyala tse hlephisang boitšoaro tse ratoang haholo hajoale li bonahala li bontša ka mokhoa o makatsang tlhekefetso ho basali (Bridges, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, Chyng, & Liberman, 2010), hape, litšoantšong tsa bootsoa, ​​banna (Kendall, 2007). Tlhatlhobo ea Hald meta e ts'ehetsa taba ea hore litšoantšo tse manyala tse hlephisang boitšoaro li hlile li eketsa maikutlo a mabifi ho basali (Hald, Malamuth, & Yuen, 2010), joalo ka pampiri e tsoang Foubert le basebetsi-'moho (Foubert, Brosi, & Bannon, 2011). Tlaleho ea Hald e phethela, "Ho fapana le tlhahlobo ea pele ea meta, liphetho tsa hajoale li bonts'itse kamano e ntle pakeng tsa ts'ebeliso ea litšoantšo tse litšila tse tsosang takatso le maikutlo a tšehetsang tlhekefetso khahlanong le basali lithutong tse seng tsa nnete '(Hald et al., 2010). Tumellanong le mokhoa ona oa pefo litšoantšong tsa bootsoa, ​​Bridges et al.'s (2010) Boithuto bo fumane hore sampole ea baemeli ba litšoantšo tse tsoang 250 e holimo e rekisang le ho hira lifilimi tsa bootsoa ho tloha 2004 ho isa 2005 e senoletse hore 41% ea lits'oantso li bonts'a rectal e lateloang ka ho kenella ka molomo, ka hona e pepesa mosali eseng karolo ea boitšoaro bo hlephileng le bo nyenyefatsang, empa ho baktheria e ka bakang likokoana-hloko tsa mofuta oa pathogenic hape (Bridges et al., 2010).

Tlhahisoleseling ena e na le litlamorao tse mpe, hobane bongata ba banna ba lilemo li koleche, le palo e ntseng e eketseha ea basali, ba sebelisa litšoantšo tsa bootsoa khafetsa (Carroll et al., 2008). Ho joalo, litšoantšo tse manyala tse hlephisang boitšoaro li fetile ka lebaka la mamello le kamohelo ho ea ho tse ratoang, ha liunivesithi tse ngata joale li amohela le ho tšehetsa 'libeke tsa thobalano'. Ka mor'a ho qhelela thoko litšoantšo tse manyala tse hlephisang boitšoaro e le tlolo ea molao ea Victoria, e hatellang boleng ba litokelo tsa Sehlomathiso sa Pele, khanyetso efe kapa efe ea litšoantšo tse manyala tse hlephisang boitšoaro ha e nkuoe ka botebo. Kahoo, likotsi tse ka bang teng bophelong ba motho kelellong le maikutlong ha ho mohla li tšohloang.

Ho tloha ha bacha bana, ka likhalase tsa boko, ba 'ikamahanya le boemo ba tšusumetso ba batho ba bontšitsoeng' lifiliming tsena (Mouras et al., 2008), tlhekefetso e atileng haholo litšoantšong tsa bootsoa e kanna ea hlahisa litlamorao tse mpe tsa maikutlo, setso le demographic. Litaba tsena li tiisa tlhompho e kholo bakeng sa matla a bokhoba ba tlhaho, bo ka fetolang setempe sa tlhaho (William Shakespeare, Hamlet, Molao 3, Scene 4). Ho etsa thobalano, joalo ka moputso oa lithethefatsi, ho beha setempe sa eona ho li-receptor tsa neuronal, dendrites le gyri kaha e tsamaisa phetoho ea neuroplastic, ka hona e kopanya lebitso la tlatsetso ha le hlahisoa ka mokhoa o qobelloang le ka mokhoa o senyang.

Liphetoho tsa paradigm hangata li shejoa hamolemo nalaneng, kamora hore ba khomarelang lipallo tse siiloeng ke nako ba se ba sa sebetse. Nakong ea liphetoho, koluoa ​​le tsitsipano li hlahella, li fifatsa bohlokoa ba phetoho ea hona joale. Leha ho le joalo, paradigm e ncha e kopaneng e kopanyang bokhoba ho lintho tse peli le boits'oaro e se e qala ho itlama, joalo ka ha ho bonoa tlhalosong e ncha ea ASAM. Boikarabello ba DSM mabapi le ho hlalosa mekhahlelo eohle ea bokuli ba kelello, ho kenyeletsoa hore na maikutlo a baeloji a ka kenya letsoho kapa che, ea qhala ka lebaka la ho se lumellane khatisong ea morao-rao. Ha ho makatse ha Thomas Insel, motsamaisi oa Setsi sa Naha sa Bophelo ba Kelello, a lla ka khaello ena e tsoelang pele ho DSM ha a re, "Mokhoa oa ho hlahloba o ipapisitse le baeloji hammoho le matšoao ha oa lokela ho sitisoa ke mekhahlelo ea DSM ea hajoale. … ”(La 29 Mmesa 2013, http://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/director/2013/transforming-diagnosis.shtml). Ho lelekoa ha tlatsetso ea tlholeho ho bokuli ba kelello ka khutso ea DSM le ho tsoela pele ka boemo ba ho se lumele ho Molimo ho hlile ho matlafatsa le ho akofisa temoho ea hore paradigm e ncha e kopaneng e ea hlaha. Sena se bontšoa haufinyane Scientific American sengoloa se nyatsang 'phoso ea mantlha ea DSM: ha e bue letho ka motheo oa likokoana-hloko oa mafu a kelello' (Jabr, 2013). Joalokaha Bruce Cuthbert a boletse, 'Re utloisisa haholo ka boko ho feta kamoo re neng re tloaetse. Re hlile re bohareng ba phetoho e kholo '(Jabr, 2013). Ho joalo, ke phetoho ea paradigm, mme ha kutloisiso ea matla a tšusumetso e phahameng molemong oa phetoho ea neuroplastic e ntse e hlaha, phapang e tla hlaka le ho feta.

Khohlano ea phaello le lithuso tsa lichelete

Sengoli ha sea fumana chelete kapa melemo ho tsoa indastering kapa kae kapa kae ho ngola tlhahlobo ena.

References

  1. Angres D. H, Bettinardi-Angres K. Lefu la ho lemalla: Tšimoloho, kalafo, le ho fola. Boloetse-Khoeling. 2008; 54: 696-721. [E fetotsoe]
  2. Barrett D. Supranormal stimuli: Litšusumetso tsa mantlha li feta sepheo sa bona sa ho iphetola ha lintho. New York: WW Norton & Khampani; 2010.
  3. Baskerville T. A, Allard J, Wayman C, Douglas AJ Dopamine oxytocin o sebetsana le penile erection. Koranta ea Europe ea Neuroscience. 2009; 30 (11): 2151-2164. [E fetotsoe]
  4. Berridge K. C, Robinson TE Karolo ea dopamine moputsong ke efe: Tšusumetso ea Hedonic, ho ithuta ka moputso, kapa ho hlohlelletsa? Tlhahlobo ea Patlisiso ea Brain. 1998; 28: 309-369. [E fetotsoe]
  5. Bibb J. A, Chen J, Taylor J. R, Svenningsson P, Nisha A, Snyder G. L, et al. Litlamorao tsa ho pepesehela cocaine e sa feleng li laoloa ke protheine ea neuronal Cdk5. Tlhaho. 2001; 410 (6826): 376-380. [E fetotsoe]
  6. Bostwick J. M, Bucci JE ts'ebeliso ea botona le botšehali ea inthanete e tšoaroang ka naltrexone. Tsoelopele ea Mayo Clinic. 2008; 83 (2): 226-230. [E fetotsoe]
  7. Bridges A. J, Wosnitzer R, Scharrer E, Chyng S, Liberman R. Khalefo le boitšoaro ba thobalano ka ho rekisa hantle livideo tsa bootsoa: Tlhahlobo ea tlhahlobo ea litaba. Tlhekefetso khahlanong le Basali. 2010; 16 (10): 1065-1085. [E fetotsoe]
  8. Carnes P. Ho tsoa meriting. Center City, MN: Hazelden; 1983.
  9. Carroll J, Padilla-Walker L. M, Nelson L. J, Olson C. D, McNamara B. C, Madsen SD Generation XXX: Ho amoheloa ha litšoantšo tsa bootsoa le tšebeliso har'a batho ba baholo ba ntseng ba hlaha. Tlaleho ea Patlisiso ea Bacha. 2008; 23 (1): 6-30.
  10. Chen B. T, Bowers M. S, Martin M, Hopf F. W, Guillory A. M, Carelli R. M, et al. Cocaine empa e seng moputso oa tlhaho ho itaola kapa ho ts'oara infosine ea koae ho hlahisa LTP e phehellang ho VTA. Neuron. 2008; 59: 288-297. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  11. Saense e mpe ea Clark-Flory T. Santorum. Salon. 2012. Hlakubele 12. E khutlisitsoe ka la 14 Phuptjane 2013, ho tloha ka http://www.salon.com/2012/03/20/santorums_bad_porn_science/
  12. Coq J. O, Xerri C. Ho senyeha ha tikoloho le thibelo ea sensorimotor ho senya 'mapa o ka pele oa pampiri ea mantlha ea somatosensory ea litoeba tsa batho ba baholo. Patlisiso ea Brain ea Tlhahlobo. 1999; 129: 518-531. [E fetotsoe]
  13. Draganski B, Gaser C, Busch V, Schuierer G, Bogdahn U, May A. Neuroplasticity: Liphetoho litabeng tsa bohlooho li susumetsoa ke boikoetliso. Tlhaho. 2004; 427: 311-312. [E fetotsoe]
  14. Draganski B, Gaser C, Kempermann G, Kuhn H. G, Winkler J, Buchel C, et al. Matla a nakoana le a moea a sebopeho sa boko a fetoha nakong ea ho ithuta haholo. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2006; 26 (23): 6314-6317. [E fetotsoe]
  15. Elbert T, Pantev C, Wienbruch C, Rockstroh B, Taub E. Keketseho ea ts'ebeliso ea letsoho le letšehali ho libapali tsa likhoele tse amanang le tlhahiso e matla ea li-cortical tsa menoana. Mahlale. 1995; 270: 305-307. [E fetotsoe]
  16. El-Guebaly N, Mudry T, Zohar J, Tavares H, Potenza MN likarolo tse qobelloang ho lithahasello tsa boits'oaro: Nyeoe ea papali ea chelete ea ho becha. Ho lemalla. 2011; 107 (10): 1726-1734. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  17. Estellon V, Mouras H. Ho lemalla thobalano: Lintlha tse tsoang ho psychoanalysis le neuroimaging e sebetsang. Socioaffective Neuroscience le Psychology. 2012; 2: 11814. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  18. Foubert J. D, Brosi M. W, Bannon RS Litšoantšo tse manyala tse hlephisang boitšoaro li shebile har'a banna ba setsoalle: Litlamorao tsa ho kenella ha batho ba emeng ka thoko, ho amohela likhopolo-taba tsa tlhekefetso le boits'oaro ba ho etsa thobalano. Ho lemalla thobalano le ho qobella. 2011; 18 (4): 212--231.
  19. Franklin T. E, Acton P. D, Maldjian J. A, Grey J. D, Croft J. R, Dackis C. A, et al. Phokotso ea taba e bosootho bo theohileng kahare ho bakuli ba cocaine ba ka hare, kapa ba nakoana. Psychology. 2002; 51 (2): 134-142. [E fetotsoe]
  20. Garcia F. D, Thibaut F. Litlatsetso tsa thobalano. Koranta ea Amerika ea Tšebeliso e Mpe ea Lithethefatsi le Joala. 2010; 36 (5): 254-260. [E fetotsoe]
  21. Gaston L. K, Shorey H. H, Saario CA Ts'oaetso ea likokoanyana ka tšebeliso ea li-pheromones tsa thobalano ho thibela tloaelo lipakeng tsa bong. Tlhaho. 1967; 213: 1155. [E fetotsoe]
  22. Phetoho ea phallo ea mali a likhoerekhoere a Georgiis JR e amanang le li-orgasm tse tlatselletsang ho basali ba phetseng hantle. Koranta ea Europe ea Neuroscience. 2006; 24 (11): 3305-3316. [E fetotsoe]
  23. Georgiadis JR E e etsa… hlaha? Karolong ea cortex ea "cerebral" cortex ea batho ho kopanela liphate. Neuroscience ea Socioaffective le Psychology. 2012; 2: 17337. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  24. Hald G. M, Malamuth N. M, Yuen C. Litšoantšo tsa bootsoa le maikutlo a tšehetsang tlhekefetso khahlanong le basali: Ho sheba kamano hape lithutong tse seng tsa nnete. Khalefo le Boitšoaro. 2010; 36 (1): 14-20. [E fetotsoe]
  25. Hedges V. L, Chakravarty S, Nestler E. J, Meisel RL Delta FosB oeverxpression ea li-nucleus e ntlafatsa moputso oa thobalano ho li-hamsters tsa basali tsa Syria. Boko ba Maiketsetso le Boitšoaro. 2009; 8 (4): 442-449. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  26. Hilton D. L, Watts C. Tlatsetso ea litšoantšo tsa bootsoa: Pono ea neuroscience. Upasuaji Neurology International. 2011; 2: 19. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  27. Holden C. Boitšoaro ba Boitšoaro: Na bo teng? Mahlale. 2001; 294 (5544): 980. [E fetotsoe]
  28. Hölzel B. K, Carmody J, Vangel M, Congleton C, Yerramsetti S. M, Gard T, et al. Ho etsa lintho ka kelellong ho lebisa ho eketseha ha bokaholimo ba taba ea bohlooho. Patlisiso ea Psychiki. 2011; 191 (1): 36-43. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  29. Jabr F. Beyond matšoao: Khatiso ea morao-rao ea buka e tataisang mafu a kelello e hlokomoloha biology ea bokuli ba kelello. Phuputso e ncha e ka fetola seo. Scientific American. 2013 Mots'eanong;: 17.
  30. Jelliffe SM Ho lemalla lithethefatsi. Sengoloa sa American Medical Association. 1906 Mar 3;: 643.
  31. Kauer J. A, Malenka JC Synaptic polasetiki le ho lemalla. Tlhahlobo ea Tlhaho Neuroscience. 2007; 8: 844-858. [E fetotsoe]
  32. Kelz M. B, Chen J, Carlezon W. A, Whisler K, Gilden L, Beckmann A. M, et al. Khopolo ea "transaction factor deltaFosB" bokong e laola maikutlo a cocaine. Tlhaho. 1999; 401: 272-276. [E fetotsoe]
  33. Kendall CN Likotsi tsa litšoantšo tsa bootsoa tsa banna ba botona le botšehali: Pono ea tekano ea thobalano. Ka: Guinn D, mohlophisi. Litšoantšo tsa bootsoa: Ho khanna tlhokahalo ea ho hoeba ka thobalano le machabeng. Los Angeles, CA: Metsoalle ea Litlatse tsa Botsoa; 2007. Setsi sa Molao oa Litokelo tsa Botho sa Machabeng / DePaul University College of Law.
  34. Kim S. J, Lyoo I. K, Hwang J, Chung A, Sung Y. H, Kim J, et al. Liphetoho tsa pele-pele tsa bohlooho-bohlooho ho bo-hlekefetso ba methamphetamine ba nakoana le ba nako e telele. Tlaleho ea Machabeng ea Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006; 9: 221-228. [E fetotsoe]
  35. Kleitz-Nelson H. K, Dominguez J. M, tokollo ea Ball GF Dopamine tikolohong ea medial preoptic e amana le ts'ebetso ea li-hormone le tšusumetso ea thobalano. Neuroscience ea Boitšoaro. 2010; 124 (6): 773-779. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  36. Kleitz-Nelson H. K, Dominguez J. M, Cornil C. A, Ball GJ Na boemo ba tšusumetso ea thobalano bo hokahane le tokollo ea dopamine sebakeng sa medial propathy? Behaviour Neuroscience. 2010; 124 (2): 300-304. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  37. Kuhn TS Sebopeho sa liphetoho tsa mahlale. Sehopotso sa 50th ed. Chicago: Univesithi ea Chicago Press; 2012. (E phatlalalitsoe 1962 ea mantlha)
  38. Lenoir M, Serre F, Lauriane C, monate o mongata oa Ahmed SH o feta moputso oa koae. PloS One. 2007; 2 (8): e698. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  39. Ley DJ Khopolo-taba ea ho lemalla thobalano. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield; 2012.
  40. Li Y, Kolb B, Robinson TE Sebaka sa phetoho e phehellang ea amphetamine e le tsitsipano ea methapo ea methapo ea methapo ho li-neuron tse bohareng tsa spiny ho li-nucleus tsa li-nucleus le li-caudate-putamen. Neurospsychopharmacology. 2003; 28: 1082-1085. [E fetotsoe]
  41. Liedtke W. B, McKinley M. J, Walker L. L, Zhang H, Pfenning A. R, Drago J, et al. Kameho ea mefuta ea tlhekefetso ho mofuta oa hypothalamic e fetoha e khotsofatsang le ho khotsofatsa takatso ea tlhaho ea takatso ea tlhaho, sodium takatso. Likhatiso tsa Mokhatlo oa Sechaba oa Saense. 2011; 108 (30): 12509-12514. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  42. Lyoo K, Pollack M. H, Silveri M. M, Ahn K. H, Diaz C. I, Hwang J, et al. Pele-pele le litempe tsa taba ea bohlooho li ea theoha ka ho itšetleha ka opiate. Psychopharmacology. 2005; 184 (2): 139-144. [E fetotsoe]
  43. Magnus DBE Teko ea tlhahlobo ea "ling-tse ngata" tse matlafatsang "boits'oaro bo botle ba serame sa serurubele. Argynnis paphia; Boiketsetso ba 10th International Congress mabapi le Entomology; 1958. maq. 405-418.
  44. Maguire E. A, Woollett K, Bakhanni ba literene ba London le bakhanni ba libese: Tlhahlobo ea MRI le tlhahlobo ea methapo ea kutlo. Hippocampus. 2006; 16: 1091-1101. [E fetotsoe]
  45. Mouras H, Stoleru L, Moulier V, Pelegrini-Issac M, Rouxel R, Grandjean B, et al. Ts'ebetso ea ts'ebetso ea seipone-neuron ka livideo tsa erotic e bolela esale pele boemo ba ho susumetsoa ha thuto: Phuputso ea fMRI. NeuroImage. 2008; 42 (3): 1142-1150. [E fetotsoe]
  46. Nestler EJ Na ho na le tsela e tloaelehileng ea limolek'hule ea tahi? Neuroscience ea Tlhaho. 2005; 9 (11): 1445-1449. [E fetotsoe]
  47. Meetso ea Nestler EJ ea ho lemalla: Karolo ea DFosB. Phetohelo ea Philosophical ea Mokhatlo oa Royal. 2008; 363: 3245-3256. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  48. Norrholm S. D, Bibb J. A, Nestler E. J, Ouimet C. C, Taylor J. R, Greengard P. Cocaine-induction proliferation of dendritic spines in nucleus accumbens is itšetleha ka ketsahalo ea cyclin-based kinase-5 . Neuroscience. 2003; 116: 19-22. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  49. Olausson P, Jentsch J. D, Tonrson N, Neve R. L, Nestler E. J, Tayor JR DeltaFosB ka har'a nucleus accumbens e laola lijo tse matlafalitsoeng tsa ts'ebetso ea ts'ebetso le ts'usumetso. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2006; 26 (36): 9196-9204. [E fetotsoe]
  50. Pannacciulli N, Del Parigi A, Chen K, Le DSN T, Reiman R. M, Litlolo tsa kelello tsa Bataranni PA Brain bothateng ba botenya ba motho: Phuputso ea voxel-based morphometry. NeuroImage. 2006; 31 (4): 1419-1425. [E fetotsoe]
  51. Pitchers K. K, Balfour M. E, Lehman M. N, Richtand N. M, Yu L, Coolen LM Neuroplasticity tsamaisong ea mesolimbic e kentsoeng ke moputso oa tlhaho le moputso o latelang. Psychology. 2012; 67: 872-879. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  52. Pitchers K. K, Frohmader K. S, Vialou V, Mouzon E, Nestler E. J, Lehman M. N, et al. ΔFosB bokong ba li-nucleus li bohlokoa bakeng sa ho matlafatsa litlamorao tsa moputso oa thobalano. Boko ba Maiketsetso le Boitšoaro. 2010; 9 (7): 831-840. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  53. Pitchers K. K, Schmid S, Sebastiano A. R, Wang X, Laviolette S. R, Lehman M. N, et al. Boiphihlelo ba moputso oa tlhaho bo fetolang AMPA le phetisetso ea li-receptor tsa NMDA le tšebetso ea li-nucleus. PloS One. 2012; 7 (4): e34700. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  54. Pitchers K. K, Vialou V, Nestler E. J, Laviolette S. R, Lehman M. N, Coolen LM Meputso ea tlhaho le lithethefatsi li sebetsa ka mekhoa e tloaelehileng ea neural polasetiki le DeltaFosB e le mokena-lipakeng oa senotlolo. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2013; 33 (8): 3434-3442. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  55. Pfaus JG Dopamine: Ho thusa ba batona ho kopitsa bonyane lilemo tse limilione tsa 200: Polelo ea maikutlo ea Kleitz-Nelson et al. (2010) Neuroscience ea Boitšoaro. 2010; 124 (6): 877-880. [E fetotsoe]
  56. Politis M, Loane C, Wu K, O'Sullivan S. S, Woodhead Z, Kiferle L, le al. Karabelo ea Neural litšoantšong tsa thobalano tse amanang le kalafo e amanang le kalafo ea lefu la Parkinson. Boko. 2013; 136 (Pt. 2): 400-411. [E fetotsoe]
  57. Reid R. C, Carpenter B. N, Fong TW Neuroscience patlisiso e hloleha ho ts'ehetsa taba ea hore ts'ebeliso e mpe ea ts'ebeliso ea litšoantšo tsa bootsoa e baka ts'abo ea boko. Upasuaji Neurology International. 2011; 2: 64. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  58. Reuter J, Raedler T, Rose M, Hand I, Glascher J, Buchel C. Tsela ea ho bapala papali ea chelete ke ho fokotsa ts'ebetso ea meputso ea mesolimbic. Neuroscience ea Tlhaho. 2005; 8: 147-148. [E fetotsoe]
  59. Robinson T. E, Kolb B. Liphetoho ho morphology ea dendrites le dendritic spines ho li-nucleus accumbens le cortex ea pele ho kamora kalafo e phetoa-phetoang le amphetamine ea cocaine. Koranta ea Europe ea Neuroscience. 1999; 11: 1598-1604. [E fetotsoe]
  60. Roitman M. F, Na E, Anderson G, Jones T. A, Berstein IL Induction ea takatso ea lijo ea letsoai alters dendritic morphology ho li-nucleus bokellanang le ho hlasimolla likhoto ho amphetamine. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2002; 22 (11) RC225: 1-5. [E fetotsoe]
  61. Robison A. J, Violou V, Mazei-Robison M, Feng J, Kourrich S, Collins M, et al. Likarabo tsa boitšoaro le tsa sebopeho sa koae e sa foleng li hloka poloko e kopantsoeng le DeltaFosB le calcium (Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II khokahanong ea li-nucleus. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2013; 33 (10): 4295-4307. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  62. Schiffer B, Peschel T, Paul T, Gizewshi E, Forshing M, Leygraf N, et al. Boemo bo sa tloaelehang bokong ba sebopeho ka pele ho tsamaiso ea methapo le methapo ea methapo ea kutlo ho pedophilia. Tlaleho ea Patlisiso ea Psychiatric. 2007; 41 (9): 754-762. [E fetotsoe]
  63. Schwenkreis P, El Tom S, Ragert P, Pleger B, Tegenthoff M, Dinsel HR Tlhahlobo ea li-asymmetries tsa bo-sensorimotor le litsebo tsa makoloi ho libapali tsa violin. Koranta ea Europe ea Neuroscience. 2007; 26: 3291-3302. [E fetotsoe]
  64. Steele K. E, Prokopowicz G. P, Schweitzer M. A, Magunsuon T. E, Lidor A. O, Kuwabawa M. D, et al. Liphetoho tsa li-receptor tsa dopamine tse bohareng le pele ho kamora ho buuoa ka mpeng. Ho buuoa ka Botenya 2010; 20 (3): 369-374. [E fetotsoe]
  65. Succu S, Sanna F, Melis T, Boi T, Argiolas A, Melis MR Ho hlohlelletsa li-receptor tsa dopamine sebakeng sa potoloho ea li-hypothalamus tsa litekanyetso tsa banna induces ea penile erection mme li eketsa dopamine ea extracellular ho li-nucleus tsa li-bokellase: Ho kenella ha oxytocin e bohareng. Neuropharmacology. 2007; 52 (3): 1034-1043. [E fetotsoe]
  66. Thompson P. M, Hayashi K. M, Simon S. L, Geaga J. A, Hong M. S, Sui Y, et al. Litla-morao tsa sebopeho bokong ba batho bao ba sebelisang methamphetamine. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2004; 24 (26): 6028-6036. [E fetotsoe]
  67. Tinbergen N. Boithuto ba tlhaho. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1951.
  68. Li-Archives tsa taolo ea koae tsa UCSF. Waxman / Kessler Hearing, Tape 7: Taolo ea FDA ea lihlahisoa tsa koae. 1994. E khutlisitsoe ka June 14, 2013, ho tloha http://archive.org/details/tobacco_mmp91f00.
  69. Wallace D. L, Vialou V, Rios L, Carle-Florence T. L, Chakravarty S, Arvind Kumar A, et al. Tšusumetso ea DeltaFosB bokong e bokellana holim'a boitšoaro bo amanang le moputso oa tlhaho. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2008; 28 (4): 10272-19277. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  70. Wang G. J, Volkow N. D, Logan J, Pappas N. R, Wong C. T, Zhu W, et al. Dopamine ea boko le botenya. Lancet. 2001; 357 (9253): 354-357. [E fetotsoe]
  71. Werme M, Messer C, Olson L, Gilden L, Thoren P, Nestler E. J, et al. DeltaFosB e laola mabili a tsamaeang. Tlaleho ea Neuroscience. 2002; 22 (18): 8133-8138. [E fetotsoe]
  72. Wolf N. Tšōmo ea porno; Makasine ea New York; 2003. Oct 20, E khutlisitsoe ka June 14, 2013, ho tloha http://nymag.com/nymetro/news/trends/n_9437/
  73. Yamamoto K, Vernier P. Phetoho ea sisteme ea dopamine ka chordates. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 2011; 5: 21. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  74. Yuan K, Quin W, Lui Y, Tian J. Ho lemalla marang-rang: Litlhahlobo tsa Neuroimaging. Biology ea Khokahano le Khokahano. 2011; 4 (6): 637-639. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  75. Zatorre R. J, Field R. D, Johansen-Berg H. Plasticity ka bohlooho le bo bosoeu: Liphetoho tsa phetoho ea sebopeho sa boko nakong ea ho ithuta. Neuroscience ea Tlhaho. 2012; 15: 528-536. [Tlhahiso ea mahala ea PMC] [E fetotsoe]
  76. Zhou Y, Lin F, Du Y, Qin L, Zhao Z, Xu J, et al. Litla-morao tsa litaba tsa bosholu ba temallo ea inthanete: Boithuto ba morphometry bo thehiloeng voxel Koranta ea Europe ea Radiology. 2011; 79 (1): 92-95. [E fetotsoe]

*Donald L. Hilton Jr. 4410 Medical Dray

Suite 610

San Antonio, Texas, 77829

usa

Email: [imeile e sirelelitsoe]