What is Sexualization? Understanding the Phenomenon From a Historical Perspective
Concerns about media portrayals that sexually objectify women are not new and have been a prominent critique within analyses of gender and the media since the 1970s (e.g., Busby, 1975). Within this work, sexual objectification has been defined in a number of ways. According to one definition,
This approach toward media’s sexual objectification changed in the late 1990s when new theories and new measures were introduced. Drawing on existing psychological and feminist theories, two different research teams sought to characterize and address how developing within a sexually objectifying culture may affect girls and women. One team was Nita McKinley and Janet Hyde. In 1996 they published an article that developed and validated a scale to assess objectified body consciousness (OBC), which referred to women’s experience of the body as an object and the beliefs that supported this experience. According to McKinley and Hyde (1996):
Prevalence of Sexual Objectification in Media Content: A Snapshot
Effects of Media Sexualization
Trends in the Empirical Research
Makeup of the Studies
My review of the field yielded 109 publications that contained 135 studies. As indicated in Umzobo 1, these studies spanned the full time frame from 1995 to 2015. However, the bulk of the studies (113 of 135, or 84%) were published in 2008 or later, after the 2007 release of the APA Task Force Report. My suspicion is that this APA report served as a catalyst and helped draw attention to the issue, in general, and to the limitations in the existing work, specifically. The 135 studies represent multiple disciplines, including social psychology, communication, women’s studies, sociology, public health, neuroscience, and developmental psychology. Indeed, the 109 publications (marked by an asterisk in the references) appeared in more than 40 different journals, indicating that interest in this issue is broad.
In terms of the samples within these studies, the makeup represents the typical psychology study, which relies heavily on undergraduate subject pools that are predominantly White, Western, and highly educated (Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan,2010). There were 137 samples within these 135 studies (two studies tested both a high school and college student sample). Descriptions of these participants are provided in 1 Table. In terms of participant age, the majority of participants were undergraduates, with relatively equal numbers of adolescents (usually high school students) and adults. Only five studies tested children. Also, fitting the WEIRD label (i.e., Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic) for psychology research (Henrich et al., 2010), findings indicate that all studies but one originated from Western nations, with most coming from the United States (88 studies, or 64%). Within the 88 samples from the United States, all but nine had a majority White sample (more than 55% White). The nine diverse samples were impressive but may have been a consequence of the regions where the research was conducted (e.g., Southern California, Northern California), because race was seldom a component of the hypotheses within these studies. Only one study of these nine (Gordon, 2008) looked at a homogenous ethnic minority sample. Thus, the findings in this field are based heavily on the experiences of White undergraduates in the United States.
Table 1. Demographics of 137 Samples Within the 135 Media and Sexualization Studies
Does Exposure to Sexually Objectifying Media Affect How People See Themselves?
Ukuzithethelela
Body Dissatisfaction
Sexual Health and Relationship Functioning
Does Exposure to Sexually Objectifying Media Content Affect How We Perceive Women?
Inkqubo yokuqonda
Trait Attributions of Objectified Individuals
Sexist Attitudes and Behavior
Media Sexualization and Sexual Violence
Suggestions For Future Directions
Ethnic Minorities
Media Genres
Definitions of Media Exposure and Media Stimuli
Potential Mediators and Moderators
Age and Socioeconomic Status
Effects on Sexual Health and Functioning
Standardized Measure Development
I-Meta-Analysis
I sigama
isiphelo
Izinto ezongezelelweyo
Ucaphulo
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