Neurocircuitry Developmental nke Na-akpali akpali na Uto: Akara Oge Ịgba Ọgwụ (2003)

Am J Isi mgbaka. 2003 June; 160(6): 1041-1052.
 
PMCID: PMC2919168
R. Andrew Chambers, MD, Jane R. Taylor, Ph.D., na Marc N. Potenza, MD, Ph.D.

nkịtị

nzube

Ọmụmụ banyere ọrịa na-egosi na nnwale na ọgwụ iri mmadụ riri ahụ na mmalite nke nsogbu iri ahụ na-abụkarị nke ụmụaka na-eto eto. Ndị ode akwụkwọ ahụ kọwapụtara data dị mkpa na nyocha ọgwụ na-akwado neurodevelopment nke ntorobịa dịka oge ihe dị egwu nke ihe ọghọm kachasị maka ịnwale ihe na nnweta nke ihe eji eme ihe.

Method

Ndị ode akwụkwọ nyochara akwụkwọ na - adịbeghị anya banyere neurocircuitry na - akpata mkpali, agụụ ihe ọjọọ, na ihe riri ahụ, na - elekwasị anya na ọmụmụ nyocha banyere ntorobịa banyere mmepe nke ntorobịa.

Results

Ọkpụkpụ neurodecent na-apụta na mpaghara ụbụrụ metụtara ihe mkpali, ume ọkụ, na iri mmadụ ahụ. Enwere ike ịkọwa ihe omume nwata na / ma ọ bụ ihe ọhụụ dị ka omume mgbanwe dị ka akụkụ site na mgbanwe maturational na frontal cortical na subcortical monoaminergic system. Usoro mmepe a nwere ike ịkwalite usoro mmụta maka mmegharị na ọrụ okenye mana ọ nwekwara ike ịbawanye mmerụ ahụ nke ọgwụ ndị riri ahụ.

Mkpebi

Nnyocha nke mgbanwe mgbanwe na neurocircuitry tinyere aka na njikwa ike nwere nnukwu ihe pụtara maka ịghọta akparamagwa, nsogbu ọghọm, yana igbochi iri mmadụ ahụ na nwata.

Ọrịa ụdị ihe na-eri ahụ bụ ihe kacha akpata ọrịa ọrịa, ịnwụ, na mmefu ahụike na United States (1). Ọnụnọ nke ihe na usoro mmekọrịta ọha na eze na-emetụta mmụba nke nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe.2). Nleba anya atọ kwuru na oge uto na ntolite etolite etolite bụ isi ihe eji eme ihe na nsogbu nke ihe eji eme ihe. Nke mbu, umuaka na ndi okenye noo n’edeputa gosiputara uzo di elu karie ihe eji eme nnwale na ihe eji eme ihe karia ndi okenye, dika ihe omumu gosiri na onu ogugu ndi mmadu noo na ahole iri abuo gara aga na iji usoro ichoputara ozo.3-5). Nke abuo, oria nsogbu riri ahu achoputara na ndi okenye ejikari na nwata ma o bu nwata.6, 7). Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ọtụtụ ndị na-a USụ sịga US na-amalite ị smokingụ sịga tupu afọ 18 (8, na mmalite nke ị dailyụ sịga kwa ụbọchị bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị mgbe afọ 25 dị (9). Ihe karịrị 40% nke ndị aholicụrụma nwere okenye na-enwe ihe mgbaàmà metụtara ịhoụ mmanya n'etiti afọ 15 na 19, yana 80% nke nsogbu niile nke ị ofụ mmanya na-amalite tupu afọ 30 (10). Ọkara kọrọ akụkọ mmalite nke iji ọgwụ iwu akwadoghị na ndị okenye nwere nsogbu ihe riri ahụ bụ afọ 16, na 50% nke ikpe ebido n’agbata afọ 15 na 18 na mbido pụrụ iche mgbe afọ 20 dị (3). Nke ato, mmalite mmalite nke iji ihe riri ahụ na-ebu amụma oke riri ahụ na ọrịa, gụnyere ojiji nke — yana nsogbu ọghọm metụtara ọtụtụ ihe (6, 11, 12). Agbanyeghi na nyocha a na-ahụkarị ka a na-ahụkarị oke nsogbu nke ihe eji eme ihe na ụmụ nwoke karịa nke ụmụ nwanyị nọ n'afọ ndụ niile, a na-ahụ ọnọdụ ndị a kapịrị ọnụ na ụmụ nwoke na ụmụ nwanyị, na-atụ aro ịdị adị nke ihe dịịrị nwoke na nwanyị na mmepe mmepe nke ihe eji eme ihe. (4, 13).

Ihe mgbanwe abụọ dị na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe mgbakwunye ahụ riri ahụ bụ ogo 1) / ị ofụ ọgwụ na 2) mmerụ ahụ dị n'ime ihe riri ahụ na-enye ọnụọgụ ọgwụ ị fixedụ ruo oge ụfọdụ.14, 15). Ghọta ma otu n'ime ihe ndị a karịrị akarị dị mkpa ma kọwaa ịkọwa mmụba nke nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe. Agbanyeghị na mmetụta ọdịnala, ndị ọgbọ, na ezinụlọ na - enye aka na nnweta ọgwụ yana nnwale ahụ.16), ọtụtụ ụzọ dị iche iche na-egosi na akụkụ ọdịiche mmadụ na ndụ naanị oge nwatakịrị nọ na-agụghị nke ọma maka ị drugụ ọgwụ ọjọọ. Agbanyeghi na ahia na nnweta ọgwụ iwu (mmanya na nicotine) juru ebe nile n’otu n’obodo America ma bụrụkwa nke iwu kwadoro maka ndị okenye, mmalite nke iji ihe eji eme ihe bụ ihe metụtara ọgwụ ndị a bụ nke etinyere n’oge uto na okenye. n'ụzọ ụrọ yana ịbawanye ụba. Na Europe, ebe ụkpụrụ omume ọdịnala na ntorobịa nke ụmụaka na ihe mgbochi nke ihe dị iche na ndị dị na United States, ihe omume na ọrịa metụtara nsogbu riri ahụ na-emekarị na-eto eto na ndị okenye.17, 18).

A na-eche na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na akwara ozi dị n’ime mmadụ ga-ebelata ihe a ga-ekpughe ọgwụ iji mee ka ọ bụrụ “okpueze ngbanwe” site na nnwale na iji ọgwụ ọjọọ riri ahụ (15). Ihe akaebe na-eto eto na-egosi na oge ntorobịa nọchiri anya oge ihe mmadụ ga-eme ka ihe mmadụ josie ike na ihe ndị na-eri ahụ nke ihe iwu na-akwadoghị. Iji maa atụ, ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma na-egosi ọkwa dị elu nke ojiji ọgwụ ọjọọ karịa ndị okenye (4, 19). N'agbanyeghị na-a smokingụ sịga ole na ole karịa ndị okenye, ndị na-eto eto na-egosi ọnụọgụ ịdabere dị elu na ọkwa ojiji ndị ọzọ.20), na agbanyeghị na ọnụego ihe eji eme ihe mmanya na-adịkarị n'oge nwata na ntorobịa, ọnụego nke mmetọ / ịdabere na ya dịgasị iche na afọ ndụ (5). Isiokwu a tụlere isi ihe gbasara ahụike na ihe gbasara ahụike maka ngbanwe akwara dị ka oge dị oke egwu. A kọwara omume dị ka amamịghe ma mee mkpebi siri ike dị ka omume tozuru etozu nke kwekọrọ na mmepe nke mmegharị mkpali nke metụtara ihe ọmụmụ ahụ riri ahụ. Ihe omume mmepe nke na-akwalite ihe mkpali na-akwalite mmụta banyere ahụmịhe okenye nwere ike n'otu oge nwekwuo mmerụ ahụ na mmetụta neurobehavioral nke ọgwụ riri ahụ, na-eduga na nsogbu nke ịba uru.

Gaa:

Ntughari na Mkpebi Mkpebi

Ngosiputa nke nsogbu ihe riri ihe riri elu na ndi okenye nwere nsogbu nke schizophrenia, nsogbu ndị na-emetụta oke, nsogbu mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, yana ịgba chaa chaa (2, 3, 10, 21, 22). Ndị nọ n’afọ iri na ụma nwere ụdị nsogbu ndị a ma ọ bụ gosipụta ha n’ụzọ zuru ezu, o yikarịrị ka ha ga-enwe nsogbu ị substanceụ mmanya.23-25). Mkpakọrịta nke ọrịa ndị a na uche na nwatakịrị nwere nsogbu eji ihe eji eme ihe na-atụ aro na usoro ụbụrụ ndị mmadụ na-ejikarị nwere ike ịkpa ike na nsogbu nke iji ihe eme ihe n'ọnọdụ ndị a dị iche iche. Usoro ndị a nwere ike gosipụta dị ka akparamagwa izugbe ma ọ bụ akparamagwa omume na-emetụta ndị na-eto eto, isi mgbaka, ma ọ bụ iji ihe na-akpata nsogbu. Njikwa ike na-adịghị mma na-anọchite anya otu n'ime motif ahụ (23, 26, 27). Dị ka ọ dị na nkọwa ndị ọzọ gbasara ịkọwa ọgwụ, ọ pụtara na ihe ọ pụtara bụ na ihe ọ pụtara bụ na mmekọrịta ya na ibe ya mara ihe. A choputala uzo ihe di iche-iche, dabere na ntule ulo ogwu ya na oru ihe ndi a choputara.28). N'ebe a, anyị na-eche echiche ịkpa oke dị ka ebumnuche nke ebumnuche nke njikwa na-adịghị mma na inweta ụgwọ ọrụ, dịka ọgwụ riri ahụ, mmekọahụ, nri, ike mmekọrịta (site na ime ihe ike), ego, ma ọ bụ ihe ndị ọzọ.27, 28). Site na nkọwa a, akparamagwa agwa na-eduga na ọghọm ma ọ bụ nsogbu na-adịghị mma; akparamagwa nke amamịghe ohuru achoro ma obu ime mkpebi di nkpa nwere ike ile anya na oghara ibu (29).

Ọrịa uche na-ejikarị ihe arụrụala na-akpata ụgwọ ọrụ na iji ihe na-eri ahụ ihe na-emetụta ịkpa ike.3, 27, 28, 30). Ngwunye akụrụngwa na -ekpebi mkpebi na-egosi nnabata dị ka oke maka nhọrọ dị oke elu / obere uru ma ọ bụ ụgwọ dị obere karịa ụgwọ ọrụ dị ukwuu (iwelata oge nwa oge)31, 32). Achọpụtala usoro mmeghachi omume na-emetụta mmekọrịta na-emetụta ọgbụgba, njikwa ihe eji eme ihe, yana nchọpụta ọrịa uche na-arịa ọrịa nchịkwa na / ma ọ bụ iji ọgwụ akpọrọ ihe (26, 33). Ọ bụ ezie na etinyebeghị ụdị ngwa ndị ahụ n'oge ndị na-eto eto, a na-ahụkarị ịkpa ike na / ma ọ bụ ihe ọhụrụ na-achọ ka ọ na-abawanye n'oge uto ma na-agbada na afọ (34, 35).

Ghọta njikọ dị n'etiti ọgbụgba na ọghọm ihe eji eme ihe nwere ike ịpụta ihe dị mkpa iji ghọta ihe kpatara ọrịa ahụ na akarị akarịaka ya, gụnyere oge uto. Conceualizations nke ọgwụ syndromes nke ihe na-eji nsogbu na njikwa ike na-adịghị mma ma ọ bụ na-eme mkpebi nke na-atụ aro ụdị ụdị psychopathology mkpali ahụ. Ndị nwere oke nchịkwa na-egosipụta mmụọ nwere ike itinye aka na akparamagwa nke na nsonaazụ na-adịghị mma nke ogologo oge. N'otu aka ahụ, ihe ndị na-eri ahụ nwere njikọ chiri anya na mkpali kemịkalụ na mgbanwe neuroplastic na mkpali ụbụrụ na-arụ ọrụ, na-eduga n'ị furtherụ ọgwụ ọzọ na-efu nsonaazụ mmekọrịta mmadụ na nke ọrụ (15). Usoro mmekorita ana - eme uche na ihe riri ahụ n’arụ usoro mkpaghasị uche nwere ike igosipụta usoro akwara ozi na-emetụta neurocircuitry na-akpali akpali.

Gaa:

Neurocircuitry nke ihe mkpali

Understandghọta mmewere ahụ na arụ ọrụ nke sistemụ ụbụrụ na-akpali nwere ike inye ozi dị mkpa gbasara ekwekọ na nkwenye agụụ, ihe ọghọm maka nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe, yana oge uto. Enwere ike ịkọwa ihe nkwalite dị ka ọrụ ụbụrụ nke na - eme ka “ntinye” ozi banyere ọnọdụ dị n'ime ya na gburugburu ebe obibi ma na - ekpebi akwara “mmepụta”36). Kama ịrụ ọrụ dị ka usoro mgbanwe dị mfe nke na-ewepụta akparamagwa omume na nzaghachi na mmụọ mkpali, mkpali na-agụnye nhazi dị elu nke ahaziri iji hazie omume iji bulie ndụ37). Omume nke ebumnuche na-agụnye ịgbakwunye ozi gbasara ọtụtụ steeti na-agbanwe agbanwe (dịka, agụụ, agụụ mmekọahụ ma ọ bụ ihe mgbu) na ọnọdụ gburugburu (gụnyere akụ ma ọ bụ ohere omumu, ọnụnọ nke ihe ize ndụ) n'ịmepụta nzaghachi omume bara uru (31). N'ịgbakọta mgbagwoju anya a, ọtụtụ ihe mgbaru ọsọ ga-adị n'otu oge ma enwere ike ịnweta ohere na oge, enwere ike ịnwe ọnụọgụ dị ukwuu nke atụmatụ omume omume ịga nke ọma iji nweta otu ma ọ bụ karịa ebumnuche ndị a. Ihe akwara ozi ga - eme ka ụzọ dị iche iche nke na - anọchi anya draịva ndị ọzọ kpaliri ma na - eleba anya na ịhọrọ draịvụ mkpali kwesịrị ekwesị maka itinye akwụkwọ (36, 38).

Ntugharị neuroscience na-amalite iwepụta ihe na-egosi akwara ozi na-akwado echiche ndị a. Mkpa ọ dị ịkwalite ahụike evolushọn ga-ebu amụma na oke akụkụ ụbụrụ so na ya, na-agbaso usoro nhazi arụmọrụ na ọrụ arụ ọrụ echekwara n'akụkụ niile. Ọmụmụ anụmanụ na ụmụ mmadụ na-atụ aro ịdị adị nke ihe mkpali izizi metụtara prertal cortex na ventral striatum, nke nwere nnweta ozugbo na mmetụta ya na ntọala “mmepụta” moto (37). Usoro ihe mmegharị a na-akwado nke ọma site na mgbasawanye nke na-akwalite ma na-akwalite ọnọdụ nso nso nso nke na-enye ọtụtụ usoro nke sensọ “ntinye” site na njikwa echiche ndị a na-ahụkarị na sekit na-akpali.Nyocha 1) (39-41). Dịka ọmụmaatụ, hippocampus na amygdala na-enye ebe nchekwa na ozi na-emetụta ihe metụtara mkpali mkpali (31, 39, 42, 43), ebe hypothalamic na septal nuclei na-enye ozi dị mkpa maka omume mkpali ma ọ bụ ebumnuche, dị ka ị nutriụ nri, iwe na mmeghachi ọmụmụ.44).

IHE 1  

Isi ihe dị na Mkpokọta ụbụrụ na-akpali akpali, mkpebi, na ọgwụ riri ahụ.a

Nchoputa emere emere ka akowara ihe nlere mbu dika enwere otutu neuronu nke nwere ike imeputa ihe otutu ma obu ihe ndi ozo ma obu ihe ndi ozo kpaliri (45). Ihe nnọchi anya ndị a na-apụta n'etiti ngwakọta nke neuronal nke jikọtara ọnụ nke njikọ akụkụ akụkụ akụkụ ahụ site na prefrontal cortex ruo na ventral striatum (akwara nke na-eme ka ọnya na -akpali akụ na -akpata) na thalamus na azụ na cortex (46, 47) (Nyocha 1 na Nyocha 2). A na-akọwa Cortical -atatat-thalamic-cortical loops dịka nkea n'ihi na akụkụ dị iche iche nke ngalaba prefrontal cortex (dịka, ihu ihu, ngalaba na-akụ na mpaghara) na-arụ ọrụ na ngalaba dị iche iche dị na mpaghara ahụ, nke na-edozigharịkwa ụfọdụ ngalaba na-atụgharị anya na thalamus laghachiri azụ cortex (48). Ihe akaebe abụọ na akwara ozi na-egosi na ịgbatị ọgbụgba nke neuronal ensemble n'ime ngalaba dị iche iche nke arụ ọrụ ahụ nwere akụkụ dị iche iche na mgbụgba ọkụ na mpaghara dị n'ihu prertalal cortex (42, 49). N'aka nke ya, usoro ịgbado ọkụ na ngụ na akwara ma na prefrontal cortex na-emetụta ihe ndị glutamatergic sitere na hippocampus na amygdala, na-atụ aro na abaghị uru na ihe ndị a dị anya nwere ike ibute ọrịa oria na nsogbu mkpali.50). N'ihi na ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị mmadụ nwere mmetụta na premotor na moto cortices na ebe a na-ahụ maka ọrụ, ọrụ ha na-ekpebi steeti ndị nwere mkpali na mmepụta akparamagwa (39, 44). Nnukwu mkpokọta nke γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) -nọgide inhibitory neurons na ụzọ a na-ekwurịta okwu site na ntinye mkpokọta mkpokọ na ntanetị nke na-ekwu maka ike dị elu nke netwọkụ akwara mpaghara iji kọọ ọtụtụ ọnụọgụ mgbakwunye mgbakwunye nke nwere ike ịrụ ọrụ dị ka ụlọ ngọngọ ụlọ. nke otutu, otutu kwalite mkpali draịva (39, 47, 51-67).

IHE 2  

Cortical-Striatal-Thalamic-Cortical Loops N'ime mkpali izizi Circuitry sonyere na nnọchite nke ndị ọkwọ ụgbọ ala kpaliri ya na ihe omume Neurocomputational nke Mkpebi Mkpebi Mkpebi na Nkuzi omume.a

Ihe akaebe doro anya na-egosi na neurocircuitry ngbanwe ọnya nrụgharị nke draịva ndị ọzọ kpaliri na-emetụta ihe omume neurobiological nke na-ebute ụzọ ma họrọ draịvụ mkpali maka omume omume. Ekekọtala akụkụ ndị metụtara akụkụ ụfọdụ na ịkwalite (ịbawanye puru iche nke enactment) ma ọ bụ igbochi draịvụ mkpali. Ihe ọghọm nke ichegharị mkpali, gụnyere ụdị arụ na ihe riri ahụ, nwere ike ịcheta nhazi nke ọma ma ọ bụ arụ ọrụ nkwado ma ọ bụ sistemụ irighiri akwara so na mkpali isi.41, 52). N'ikwekọ n'echiche a, ọmụmụ neuroimaging na-egosi mpaghara subcortical -atatat na mpaghara cortex na usoro mmetụta uche na ọgụgụ isi nke ime mkpebi na usoro ọgwụ nke ọgwụ na-eri ahụ.53). Iji leba anya n'echiche a, a ga-akọwapụta data na-akwado nkwado na inhibitory na-akpali mkpụrụ, nyocha nke mgbanwe n'ime ụzọ ndị a n'oge oge ntorobịa.

Nkwalite Nkwalite Na-ewepụ Ihe

Dopamine weputara n'ime uzo ihe bu ihe omume neuromodulatory buputara na ntughari nke ihe ndi mmadu kpaliri ime ihe, na aru oru dika “aga” izugbe54). Iwepu Dopamine n'ime ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens) na dorsal striatum (caudate putamen) na-ewe iwe site na akara ngosipụta site na cortex na mpaghara ndị ọzọ na-akpali ọrụ dopamine neuron na mpaghara ventral tegmental na mpaghara nigra, n'otu n'otu (55, 56) (Nyocha 1). Agbanyeghị, ngalaba akụkụ akụkụ na nke azụ ka ejikọtara ya na ọkwa dị iche iche nke nrụrụ premotor. Nhapụ Dopamine banye na mmiri azụ, nke etinyere na usoro pathogenesis nke oria Parkinson, bụ nke metụtara njikọ na usoro ọrụ moto na arụ ọrụ.57). N'ụzọ dị iche, mwepụta dopamine n'ime akụrụngwa nke akwara na-esonye na mkpali mkpali, ụgwọ ọrụ, premotor cognition (echiche), na mmụta banyere omume ọhụụ (43, 46, 58). Amaghi uzo ekwuputara weputara dopamine na ntughari uche n’echiche. Ọrụ ụfọdụ na-egosi na mwepu dopamine na-emetụta usoro ngwa ngwa nke mkpokọta neuronal na ngụkọta akwara ma na-emetụta azịza ha maka ntinye glutamatergic site na cortex, amygdala, na hippocampus (51, 59) (Nyocha 2B). Nchoputa a n’egosi na ihe mmetuta, ihe mmetuta, na ihe banyere ebe nchekwa, nke na-eduga n’ọgbọ nke ihe nnọchianya nke draịvụ na-akpali akpali, na-apụtakarị site na ntinye dopamine na steeti ahụ, nke mere na ebe ọgba tum tum na-agbadata nwere ike ịnata ma mee ihe banyere ozi mkpali ndị akọwapụtara.51, 59, 60). N'ihi ya, ọnya akwara nke neurotoxic nke pre ቅድመalal cortex, amygdala, ma ọ bụ akparama agwa hippocampus na-ewe iwe site na mkpali ọgwụ ọgwụ nke ntọhapụ dopamine na ngụkọta akwara.61-63).

Egosiwo ụdị mkpali dị iche iche na-abawanye dopamine na njakịrị akwara. Ndị a gụnyere omume ọgwụ ọgwụ nke ọgwụ riri ahụ (gụnyere nicotine, mmanya, cocaine, amphetamine, opiates, afọ), ụgwọ ọrụ sitere n'okike (nri, mmekọahụ, ma ọ bụ ihe ndị ọzọ), mkpali metụtara ụgwọ ọrụ na ọnọdụ (igwu egwuregwu vidiyo), na nrụgide. ma ọ bụ ihe mkpasu iwe (43, 64-67). Environmentmata gburugburu ebe obibi dị mkpa maka inweta ezigbo ihe onyinye dị na ya, na njikwa iji chọọ na ịchọpụta ihe a na-amaghị bụ n'onwe ya ihe mkpali kachasị mkpa.43). Ọnọdụ gburugburu ebe obibi na-akpalite ịhapụ dopamine ventral -atatatat68) dịkwa ka ọgwụ ndị na-eri ahụ, na-eme ka a mara ihe a na-eme n'ime anụmanụ anụmanụ,69). Ọhụụ, nke egosipụtara n'ụdị nke enweghị nchekasị ma ọ bụ ihe na-akpali gburugburu ebe obibi, yana ọgwụ ndị na-eri ahụ, na-akpali akpali karịsịa (70). Gwọ deliveredgwọ a na-eweghachi na oge na-adịghị anya, ma ọ bụ na fashions na-atụghị anya ya nwere ikike dị ukwuu karịa ule ugboro ugboro iji nọgide na-agba sel dopamine na omume ọnọdụ ụgwọ ọrụ (71, 72). N'ụzọ dị iche, ọtụtụ akparamagwa ma ọ bụ agwa ndị a zụrụ azụ na-eme n'oge na-adịghị anya na-agbada na ntanetị na ntọhapụ dopamine. Ya mere, mkpali ogwu nke usoro dopamine nke onye ogwugwo riri ahu putara na-aputa ihe na / ma obu ime ihe ndi ozo site na njiri mara nke gburugburu ebe obibi.

Ọrụ nke abụọ dị mkpa nke dopamine, yana ọrụ glutamatergic na-emetụta ọrụ na ngwangwa ngọngọ na arụ ọrụ GABA-error of the nucleus accumbens neurons, metụtara mkpebi siri ike nke ndị nnọchianya n'ọdịnihu na nhọrọ nhọrọ nke draịvụ mkpali. Na mmụta metụtara ụgwọ ọrụ, a na-eme omume ka ọdịniihu dabere na ahụmịhe ndị gara aga metụtara ụgwọ ọrụ site na mgbanwe mgbanwe akwara dị na akwara nke na -akpata uru akwara (73). Releasehapụ ọgwụ dopamine ugboro ugboro na-akpata mkpịsị akwara na-eme ka mgbanwe ndị na-egbochi mkpụrụ ndụ na-etinye aka na ụzọ mgbapụta intracellular na-edenye ụzọ, ngosipụta mkpụrụ ndụ, na ije ụlọ cellular (15). Ntinye Dopamine na ngwongwo nucleus na prefrontal cortex mpaghara nke na - etinye aka na ngwangwa nucleus ka etinyere na usoro mmụta na plasticity, gụnyere mgbanwe mgbanwe ogologo oge na morphology nke osisi dendritic neuronal (74-77). Usoro akwara ndị a nwere ike ime ka akparamagwa akparamagwa, ebe mgbali ya na ụgwọ ọrụ na - esikwu ike ka a na - enweta ụgwọ ọrụ ahụ ugboro ugboro (78, 79). Ntughari uche, dika mmụba nke ebumnuche ebumnuche metụtara ya na ụgwọ ọrụ metụtara ọnọdụ ndị ọzọ na-eweta mkpali ị nweta ụgwọ ọrụ nke na-abanyewanye mmanye (78). N'ụzọ dị otu a, ọrụ dopamine sistemụ nwere ike ịnwe ọrụ ogologo oge nke warara ma ọ bụ ilekwasị anya na ntinye nke mkpali nke mmadụ.

Ihe mgbochi Na - egbochi Ihe

Arụ ọrụ nke arụ ọrụ ma ọ bụ usoro nke sistemụ mgbochi nwere njikọta nke draịva nke draịva na-akpali akpali ndị e weere dị ka nke ziri ezi ma ọ bụ adịghị mma. Isi n'etiti ndị a bụ serotonin (5-HT) neurotransmitter sistemu na prefrontal cortex components nke na-akpali akpali (Nyocha 1). Usoro nke ụbụrụ 5-HT ụbụrụ dị ụkọ jikọtara ya na omume ndị na-akpali akpali, gụnyere ime ihe ike na njide onwe onye, ​​igbu onwe ya, ọkụ na-amalite, na ịgba chaa chaa na-akpata ọrịa (80-82). Mmerụ ọgwụ nke usoro 5-HT na ụmụ anụmanụ na-arụpụta ihe na-akpali akpali ịzaghachi na mmụta metụtara ụgwọ ọrụ na mkpali mkpali (83). N'aka ọzọ, ndị na - ahụ maka pro-serotonergic na-ebelata oke agbụrụ na enweghị ike nke ụmụ anụmanụ na mmadụ.84, 85). Agbanyeghị na usoro maka nchọpụta ndị a akọwaghị nke ọma, atụpụta 5-HT site na midbrain raphae nuclei ruo na mkpali, tinyere mpaghara ventral tegmental, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, na hippocampus, pụtara gụnyere (55, 86).

Ọrụ prertalal cortex adịwo njikọ ogologo oge na njikwa ike. Edekọtara ya na 1848, mmebi nke cortex ventromedial prefrontal na-akpata ihe mkpali na-akpali akpali jikọtara ya na nkwanyeghị mgbanwe, mkpebi na-adịghị mma na atụmatụ onye isi, na enweghị mmasị na nha anya ọha mmadụ (87). Akpabigakwala mmetụta mkpali siri ike n'ọtụtụ ọnọdụ akwara ozi (dịka ọmụmaatụ akparamagwa mmadụ, nsogbu na-emetụta ọria, akwara ihu, na nsogbu ụbụrụ) nke e jiri mara usoro ndị na - adịghị mma nke ọrụ prertalal cortex (26, 30, 88-90).

A na - ejikọta akwa cortex nke mbụ na - ebute ihe egwu na - arịa ọrịa ma ọ bụ ọgwụ na - eri ahụ, ikekwe na - agbanwe mgbanwe na mmeghachi omume mkpali maka ọgwụ iri mmadụ ahụ. Ọmụmụ nyocha ahụike gosipụtara njikọ nke mmerụ ahụ ụbụrụ, na-emetụtakarị prefrontal cortex, ya na iji ihe akpọrọ akpọkasị ma na-atụ aro na mmalite nke ihe ndị a naanị na-abawanye ihe egwu maka nke ọzọ (91-93). A na-ahụkarị ihe arụrụ aka ma ọ bụ mmega ahụ nke pre ቅድመalal cortex nke etisọlọ etiology na - apụtakarị na ndị nwere nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe (94-97). Izi ezi na nyocha a, ọnya ọnya ihu ga-eme ka ịdị ike cocaine dịkwuo ike n'oge ị na-ejide onwe gị.98, 99).

Nchọpụta nke mmekọrịta mmekọrịta corticostriatal na-atụ aro maka ụdị prertalal cortex dysfunction, na-emepụta ma ọ bụrụ na ọ bụ nnukwu ihe kpatara nsogbu ahụ ike. Procugatory glutamatergic na-esite site na akpa izizi (pre ቅድመal cortex) rue akwara ngbapụta na mpaghara akụkụ ventral na-emetụta ụdọ dopamine, ọgbụgba neuronal, na usoro akwara neuroplastic na ngụkọta akwara.39, 100, 101). Njikọ ndị a na arụ ọrụ na arụ ọrụ na-enye echiche na cortex prefrontal na-esonye na nnọchite anya, ogbugbu, na mgbochi nke mkpali mkpali site na ị na-emetụta usoro nke mkpokọta ọgbụgba akwara dị na njakịrị akwara. Mgbakorita cortex prefrontal ma obu ntinye ya na akuko nucleus nwere ike 1) igbanwe otutu ihe ngosiputa nke nhọrọ nnabata mkpali n’ime ngwo ngwo, 2) igbanwe uzo mmeghachi omume n’obu akuko nke neburonal neuronal na “ije” nke enyere dopamine influx , na - ebute ndapụta dị ukwuu nke itinye akwụkwọ nke draịva ndị kpaliri, na / ma ọ bụ 3) na - egbochi mmebi akwara neuroplastic na ngụkọta akwara nke ga - agbadata ike nke draịvụ na - akpali akpali ekwenyeghị site na ahụmịhe gara aga. Ọkpụkpụ cortex na-adịghị mma, agbanyeghị usoro ọgwụgwọ a kapịrị ọnụ, nwere ike ịbawanye puru omume ịrụ ọrụ na-ekwesịghị ekwesị kpaliri anya ụlọ ọgwụ dị ka ihe na-akpali akpali. N’otu aka ahu, prertalal cortex dysfunction nwere ike ibute na 1) mkpali mkpali na mmeghachi omume nke enwetara site na prodopamine uto nke ogwu na / ma obu 2) nke ekwuputaghi na ntughari nke oria akwara nke ogwu n’enwe mmetuta nke mkpali na ngbanwe na icho mmanye mmanye.102, 103). Dị ka otu, mmebi mmekọrịta nke sistemụ mkpali dị ike na ọnọdụ nke ịkwalite sistemụ mkpalite arụ ọrụ ga-abawanye mmụba yana ihe ọghọm nke nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe. Mgbanwe mgbanwe ọgbụgba n'oge afọ iri na ụma nke na-eduga n'ọnọdụ ndị a nwere ike ibute adịghị ike nke ahụ riri ahụ.

Gaa:

Mgbako nke Neurocircuitry Mkpali N’oge Ntorobịa

Mgbanwe psychophysiological gbara ọkpụrụkpụ na-apụta n'oge uto. Ndị na-eto eto na -enwewanye okenye-dị ka ọgụgụ isi na ụdị mmetụta uche (104, 105) ka ndị okenye na-etolite etolite site na nkwalite gburugburu ebe obibi nke okenye106). N'oge nwata, ihe mkpali igwu egwu na-akwalite mmụta agụghị amụ banyere ahụmịhe ndị okenye, usoro na-ebelata nsonaazụ na-emebi ihe (43). N'oge ntorobịa, mkpali igwu egwu iji sonye na ahụmịhe ndị okenye maara ọhụụ, na-enweghị uru ihe ọmụma banyere ihe omimi iji duzie mkpebi.107). Site na echiche okenye, omume nwata na-enweghị ihe ọhụụ nwere ike ịdị ya ka mkpebi na-adịghị mma na enweghị ike (34, 35).

Nkwalite Nkwalite Na-ewepụ Ihe

Gbanwee mmepe na mmegharị mkpalite izizi n'oge oge uto nwere ike ikwalite akparamagwa ihe nzuzu na usoro mkpali na-akpali akpali. Ọrịa Neuropsychiatric metụtara ọrụ dopamine dị n'etiti na-eso usoro mmepe to kwekọrọ n'echiche a. Ọrịa Tic, nke a na-agwọ site na igbochi ọrụ dopamine, na-agbakarị n'oge ngwụsị na nwata na n'oge ntorobịa ma na-enyekarị okenye.108). N'ụzọ dị iche, ihe kpatara ọrịa Parkinson, gụnyere ọrụ dopamine na-ezighi ezi, na-abawanye site na ịka nká.57). Na ihe nlere a gosiputara usoro mmepe izugbe na-akwado site n'ọmụmụ anụmanụ nke na-egosi ọdịiche na akparamagwa nwata nwere nsogbu gbasara ọrụ sistemụ109). Oke oke ime na-egosi omume dị omimi nyocha nke oke akụkọ ma na-ekerekwa òkè na egwuregwu mmekọrịta karịa ụmụ oke na okenye.110). Ehi na-etolite etolite na egosiputa nnabata nke prodopaminergic na hyperensitivity na dopamine, na-atụ aro na sistemụ dopamine ha na arụ ọrụ na ntọala dị nso tupu arụ ọrụ ọgwụ (110). Mmụaka ụmụ na-etolite etolite etolite etolite etolite etolite etughari karie odibo okenye (111). Na usoro ọgwụgwọ amphetamine, ndị okenye na-egosi mmụba na ihe amaghị ihe ọhụụ na ndị na-eto eto na-egosipụta mbelata, na-ahọrọ kama ebe ndị ha maara na mbụ jikọtara na nnyefe amphetamine (111). Ehi na-etolite etolite na-egosi mmetuta dị ukwuu na ịhapụ dopamine na-apụ mgbe ụgwụ psychostimulant ugboro ugboro karịa oke ndị okenye (112, 113). Na nchikota, nchoputa ndia n’egosi na nnwale ndi ntorobia nwere nsogbu na ọghọm dị n’ị drugsụ ọgwụ ọjọọ riri ahụ gụnyere ọdịiche nke mmepe n’usoro sistemụ dopamine na mmetụaka.

Ọdịiche nke ịgba n'usoro sistemụ nkwado na sistemụ 5-HT nwere ike iso mee ka nzụlite nwata mara ihe ọhụụ. Nchịkọta CSF nke dopamine na 5-HT metabolites na-agbada n’oge nwata ma gbadata ruo na ọkwa ndị okenye site na afọ 16 (114). Agbanyeghị, ruru nke dopamine metabolite homovanillic acid na 5-HT metabolite 5-hydroxyindole-acetic acid na-abawanye, na-atụ aro ọnụego dopamine dị elu na ntụgharị 5-HT (114). N’ime anụ, njupụta nke dopamine na-ebido na mbibi prefrontal cortex na-abawanye site na ọkara nke ogo okenye na ọnwa 6 dị ka ogo okenye site n’oge uto (2 afọ), mgbe njupụta nke ntinye dopamine axonal dị ihe dị okpukpu atọ na nke 5-HT (115). N'ụzọ dị iche, saịtị mmepụta 5-HT na neurons prefrontal cortex ruru ogo ndị okenye site na izu nke abụọ mgbe amuchara nwa (115). N'uche, nchoputa ndị a na-egosi na oge uto nwere ike ịkọwa ọrụ ka ukwuu na sistemụ nkwado dopamine karịa ka usoro 5-HT inhibitory.

Mgbanwe homonụ nke afọ iri na ụma nke na-emetụta ihe mkpali nke sekọndị nwekwara ike iso kpalite arụ ọrụ nke sistem dopamine. Ndị na-anabata steroid ndị na-agba ọgwụ na-ahụ maka mmetụta neuroplastic dị ukwuu na-egosipụta nke ọma na hippocampus na hypothalamus (116, 117). Ntughari akwara Neuroplastic n’oge uto nwere ike igbanwe ihe onyonyo nke mkpali ihe ana - eme n’usoro ndia118, 119). Dịka ọmụmaatụ, oke mmiri na homonụ mmekọahụ na-eso eme ka mmadụ nwekwuo agụụ mmekọahụ, ịmata ihe gbasara mmekọrịta nwoke na nwanyị na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, asọmpi mmekọahụ na oke iwe.43, 120, 121).

Ọrụ Hippocampal nwere ike ịdị mkpa na mgbanwe metụtara mkpịsị metụtara mmekọahụ na akparamagwa akparamagwa ohuru. Site na njikọta sara mbara na cortex, hippocampus na-atụnyere ọnọdụ metụtara gburugburu ebe obibi ozugbo na ncheta oge gara aga iji chọpụta ọdịdọ gburugburu (122). Ozi nweta nwere ike itinye aka na mkpali sitere na nchịkwa nke ihe a na-eme ma ọ bụ mmetụta ọpụpụ dopamine n'ime ngụkọta akwara ma ọ bụ na-emetụta ihe ndị na –eme eme.51, 123, 124). Echiche a kwekọrọ na data mmegharị ahụ na nke anụ ahụ na-egosi na mbibi nke hipphoampal na-agbanwe ntinye dopamine nke ukwu na ntanetị na azịza omume gbasara gburugburu akwụkwọ (69). N'akụkụ, data ndị a na-egosi usoro nke ọnọdụ hormonal dị na ọkwa dị iche iche nke ndụ (nwata, oge uto, ntozu oke) nwere ike ime ka usoro dopamine na-akwalite ka ọ bụrụ omume nwere ike ịnabata usoro mmepe.

Ihe mgbochi Na - egbochi Ihe

Mgbanwe nke nkwalite nkwalite ahụ na-apụta n'otu oge na ihe mmepe na cortex prefrontal. N'oge uto, cortex prefrontal emebebeghị ọtụtụ ọrụ ọgụgụ ihe nwere ike ịgụnye ike ya igbochi mkpali. Usoro nke cortex pre ቅድመalal cortex, tinyere ọrụ nchekwa, idozi nsogbu dị mgbagwoju anya, iche echiche, na echiche ziri ezi, na-akawanye mma n'oge ntorobịa (104, 105, 125). Ọ bụ ezie na ikike igbochi azịza psychomotor na-akawanye mma site na nwata, site na ngwụsị oge uto (126), usoro nke usoro ntụrụndụ ndị ọzọ nke nwata (dịka ọmụmaatụ, ime mkpebi) bụ ihe edoghị anya.

Mgbanwe anatomi na arụmọrụ kwekọrọ oge ụfọdụ ka mgbanwe na ọrụ ịma ihe. N'oge uto, a na-ahụta mgbanwe na usoro EEG nke ọrụ cortical yana azịza nke akpali akpali.104, 127). Site na 6 ruo 12, oke nke ụbụrụ mpụta ụbụrụ gaa n'olu ụbụrụ ka na-agbanwe agbanwe; ọ na - emewanyewanyewanye ike site na afọ 12 ruo 18 (128). Site na afọ 4 ruo 17, enwere mmụba na-aga n'ihu na ịdị ọcha okwu na coalex frontal, nwere ike ịbụ n'ihi ụba myelination nke neurons na axonal diameters ma na-enyere aka ịba ụba nke nrụpụta ọrụ nwere ike ịgbasa (129). A na-ahụkwa mgbanwe na metabolism nke ụbụrụ na-egosipụta mgbanwe ikuku na nhazi ozi. N'ụwa niile, ụbụrụ na-abawanye ike nke ike, na-ekwekọ n'ọkwa okenye site na afọ 2, na-abawanye okpukpu abụọ karịa ọkwa okenye site na afọ 9, na-agbadata na ọkwa okenye site na ngwụsị oge uto (130, 131). E jiri ya tụnyere mpaghara subcortical, mpaghara cortical na-enyocha ihe yiri nke a ma bụrụ nke na-ekwusi ike na oge nke metabolic ọnụego ma gosipụta mgbanwe ndị a mgbe e mechara, mpaghara mpaghara cortical na-agafe ikpeazụ (131).

Mgbanwe mgbanwe otito dị na akụrụngwa nke prefrontal cortex bụ nke mgbanwe neuroplastic, dị ka egosipụtara site na usoro dendritic, synapses, na myelination, ọnụego nke mkpokọta neuronal, yana ntoputa nke ụdị ọgụgụ isi okenye (129, 132-134). Agbada na mmezi metabolic na frontal na mpaghara ndị ọzọ cortical nwere ike igosipụta ntụpọ synaptik, ebe a na -ebelata mgbakwunye na njikọta neuronal na-ewe ike nke ọma na-eme ka o nweta ahụmịhe. N'ime akuko prefrontal cortex, nza synaptik n'ime mpaghara nnabata ọtụtụ mmadụ na-abawanye na 17 × 108 kwa mm3 n'agbata afọ 1 na 5 ma na-agbadata na ọkwa nke okenye nke 11 × 108 kwa mm3 n'oge uto (135). Mpempe Synaptik na ụmụ oke na-eto eto na-apụta na mmiri nke microciteite cortical nke na-egosi mmetụta ụfọdụ na nhazi ozi (134). Mbelata dị na cortex synapses dị ukwuu maka ndị axons sitere na mpaghara cortical kama ịpụta na cortices dị anya ma na-atụ aro ka ha gosipụta mmụba sitere na ntụkwasị obi nke mpaghara prefrontal cortex na-ahụ maka ozi multimodal nke ukwuu.125). Njirimara a nwere ike ikwe ka nhazi nke elu di elu, ya bu na ihe omuma nke ihe omimi gara aga nke edobere na ihe di anya nwere ikike iso kompeni (134). Ọkpụkpọ peri na-etolite etolite etolite ma miekere onwe ya136). Mbelata ndị a na-emegide onwe ha nwere ike ịbawanyewanye nkwụsi ike nke usoro ọgbụgba nke neurons cortical (137) ma bulie ikike nke nnakọta nke prefrontal cortex neurons ka ọkụ baa n'ụkpụrụ echekwaranụ (nke nwere ụkpụrụ)134, 138), itatingkwadoro ihe dị mkpirikpi oge ịba ụba nke ozi. N'ikwekọ n'echiche a, arụmọrụ ncheta arụmọrụ arụ ọrụ n'ime ụmụ enwe na-eto eto kwekọrọ na pasent nke neurons prefrontal na-egosi ọrụ dịgidere n'oge oge ọrụ (139).

Ihe atụ nke netwọkụ akwara na-enye echiche na mmụba nke njikọta cortical njikọta na nwata na-esote ọdịda nke ogo okenye karịa oge ntorobịa na-egosi njikarịcha mmụta mmụta, kwekọrọ na mbelata ọnụego mgbanwe neuroplastic (125, 140). Usoro ndị a na-ekpebi usoro azụmahịa dị n'etiti ikike ịmụba ozi ọhụrụ ọfụma nke iji na ịkọwa ozi ndị amụtara na mbụ.140). Dika a na-echekwa ihe ichoro na njikọta n’ime netwọkụ akwara, ọnụ ọgụgụ mmụta, ma ọ bụ ikike nke neuroplasticity dị ka ọnụ ọgụgụ njikọ synaptik si egosipụta, ga-agbadata, na-ebute sistemụ na-egbochi igbochi ozi nke mmụta mbụ.140). Mkpokọ Synaptik na usoro mmepe ndị ọzọ dị na cortex pre ቅድመal, ndị nwere nnukwu mkpali maka ahụmịhe ndị okenye, nwere ike ịrụ ọrụ ọnụ iji mee ka nzụlite nwatakịrị nweta nghọta nghọta na nghọta nke gburugburu ebe obibi. A na - eme ka ngụkọta ngwa ngwa nke prefrontal cortex site na mkpali mkpali ịbanye na akụkọ okenye dị ka okenye, emesịa na - eduga na mkpali nke dabeere na ahụmihe nke na - eduzi nnabata nke mkpebi kachasị "kwesịrị ekwesị".

Gaa:

Mkpebi

Ihe omumu ihe omumu n’enweghi nsogbu bu ihe ndi ozo n’aru oru n’ime akwara di n’iru ya na ihe ndi mmadu n’aru ka ndi mmadu n’atu ike ya bu ihe ndi ozo. Ihe mgbakwunye mmụọ dị ukwuu maka ahụmịhe ọhụụ, yana sistemụ inhibitory na-amabeghị nke ọma, nwere ike ibute ịrụ ọrụ nke omume na omume dị ize ndụ, gụnyere ịnwale ya na iji ọgwụ ọjọọ riri ahụ. N'otu aka ahụ, ọrịa isi mgbaka na-adịkarịkarị maka nsogbu nke ị substanceụ ọgwụ na-emetụta ihe na-emetụta ike dyscontrol putatively na-egosipụta nhụsi ike na-adịghị ala ala na / ma ọ bụ usoro nkwalite hyperactive nke neurocircuitry na-akpali akpali. N'oge uto, a na-enwe usoro mkpali na-agagharị agagharị nke yiri ọnọdụ ndị a. Direct pharmacological-mkpali mmetụta nke ọgwụ riri ahụ na sistem dopamine nwere ike osooso n'oge ndị a mmepe, na-eme ka enwee ọganihu ma ọ bụ na-adịgide adịgide nke mgbanwe neural na-akpata ahụ riri ahụ.

Ihe kacha gosipụtara ụdị ihe nlereanya a bụ na iji ọgwụ eme ihe na-emebi ihe bụ ọrịa neurodevelopmental. Ya mere, nyocha na ọgwụgwọ na-eme ka ndị na-eto eto na ndị okenye na-eto eto nwere ike ịbara uru afọ niile nwere nsogbu eji ihe eji eme ihe. Nkọwapụta nke akụkụ akụrụngwa nke neurocircuitry na-akpali agụụ mmekọahụ na - abanye neurodevelopment nke etolite etolite (gụnyere subcortical dopamine na coconex ọzọ na - eso ya) nwere ike ikpughe usoro dị iche iche nke nwoke na nwanyị ma ọ bụ ọrịa metụtara iche echiche na ọghọm dị ka nsogbu ọghọm ihe. Mmetụta nke omume na nwata na psychopharmacology na-eto eto na mmepe nke neurocircuitry na-akpali akpali na ihe ize ndụ maka nsogbu ị substanceụ ọgwụ bụ ihe a na-akọghị. Enwere obere data, na ọtụtụ ozi sitere na akụkọ banyere ojiji nke psychostimulants maka nlebara anya ọrịa hyperactivity aghara. Nchọpụta na-atụ aro maka ihe nchebe na-egbochi nsogbu nke ị substanceụ ọgwụ na otu usoro nyocha ma ọ bụ obere ìgwè yana enwere ike ọ nweghị mmetụta ma ọ bụ mbibi na ndị ọzọ (141-144).

Achoro nyocha ozo iji nwalee usoro a choro na ihe omuma a nke ihe ngosi a. Ihe akaebe maka njikọ dị n'etiti ọgbụgba na ihe ọghọm maka nsogbu ị substanceụ ihe ọ acrossụ acrossụ gafee ọnọdụ ụlọ ọgwụ, gụnyere oge uto na / ma ọ bụ nsogbu uche, siri ike ma ọ kacha bụrụ njikọta. Nchịkọta ejikọtara ọnụ na ọtụtụ ụzọ dị mkpa iji nyochaa mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ndị a tụrụ aro ha kpọmkwem. Ekwesịrị ịnwale ụdị anụmanụ nke ịkpa ike na omume iri mmadụ ahụ na nchịkwa ọgwụ ọjọọ n'ime isiokwu site na ụzọ akụkụ ma akụkụ ogologo. Ekwesịrị itinye usoro mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa, mkpụrụ ndụ, akịchechek, na usoro neurophysiological maka ụdị ndị a iji mata akụkụ ndị pụrụ iche na akụkụ pụrụ iche nke mkpali na-emetụta ma ọ bụrụ na ihe riri ahụ. Neurocomputational simulations nke isi mkpali circuitry, na-etinye otutu ahịrị nke data ndu, enwere ike ịchoo ihe ịtụnanya dị na ọkwa irighiri akwara na-amụghị amụ na nchọpụta nyocha ihe banyere ndụ.

Nyere uzo achoro di iche iche nke aru oru nke n’emeputa ihe otutu na nsogbu ihe eji agwo oria n’aria oria nke pụtakwara n’okorobia, ogha n’iru ka esi ekpebi ihe ojoo n’iru nsogbu n ’udiri ihe ojoo 1) gosiputara ngosiputa mbu nke okenye syndrom psychiatric nke nwere ihe egwu di elu maka nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe na / ma obu 2) na - egosiputa nnukwu nsogbu karie n’okpuru ndi n’eto eto. Enwere ike ịhọrọ nhọrọ abụọ ahụ, na-ekepụta nhụta dị ukwuu maka nsogbu ị substanceụ ọgwụ riri ahụ na ndị ntorobịa niile mana ọnụọgụ mmụọ dị ukwuu na ndị ntorobịa mebiri emebi. Nkọwa dị otú a ga-ekwekọ na ịdị adị nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa pụrụ iche na ihe ize ndụ gburugburu na ihe nchebe iche na-arụ ọrụ na mgbanwe mgbanwe nwa oge na arụ ọrụ ụbụrụ iji mepụta otu ọkwa adịghị ike mmadụ. N'ịtụle onyinye dị n'ụdị ohere ndị a, ịme anụmanụ maka iji ihe eji eme ihe na nsogbu n'oge usoro mmepe dị iche iche, yana usoro ụzọ ndị ọzọ ga - esi gosipụta ọgwụ ọjọọ nke onye na - eto eto ga - adị mkpa, gụnyere iji usoro nke anụmanụ banyere ọrịa uche na akụrụngwa. eji nsogbu. Ọmụmụ ogologo oge, ọkachasị ndị na-eji ebumnuche ebumpụta ụwa na ime mkpebi na iji teknụzụ mkpụrụ ndụ na arụ ọrụ, ga-aba uru dị ukwuu na nghọpụta nsogbu riri ahụ na ọgbọ niile na ụmụaka nwere ahụike na uche.31). Identchọpụta ìgwè ndị ntorobịa nwere oke mmerụ ahụ maka nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe, mmepe nke atụmatụ mgbochi na-egosi, yana mmezi nke ọgwụ ọgwụ na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya bụ ebe dị mkpa ị ga - agbaso iji belata nnukwu mmetụta nke nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe na ọha mmadụ.

Gaa:

Nkweta

Kwadoro site na Veterans Administrator Special Neuroscience Research Fellowship Grant na onyinye sitere na National Alliance maka Nchọpụta na Schizophrenia na nkụda mmụọ (Nchọpụta Onye Na-eto Eto), Institutelọ Ọrụ Na-ahụ Maka Ọgwụ Ọgwụ (DA-11717, DA-00167), American Psychiatric Association (DA) -00366), na National Center maka Gamgba Cha Cha nke Ọrụ.

Ndi dere akwukwo a kelere George Heninger maka ihe edere na ihe odide ahu.

Gaa:

References

1. Mmetụta amblinggba Cha Cha na Omume. Chicago: Mahadum nke Chicago, National Nnyocha Echiche; 1999.
2. Bucholz KK. Nosology na ọrịa na-efe efe nke iri mmadụ ara na mbibi ha. Ọrịa ọjọọ riri ahụ. 1999;22: 221-239.
3. Anthony J, Helzer J. Syndromes nke iji ọgwụ eme ihe na ịdabere. Na: Robins LN, Regier DA, ndị editọ. Ọrịa psychiatric na America: Ọmụmụ Mpaghara Catchment Epidemiologic. New York: Ndi oru nta akuko; 1991. 116 – 154.
4. Warner LA, Kessler RC, Hughes M, Anthony JC, Nelson CB. Ọrịa na njiri mara nke iji ọgwụ eme ihe na ịdabere na United States: nsonaazụ sitere na Nnyocha Nlekọta Mba. Arch Gen Ọrịa. 1995;52: 219-229. [PubMed]
5. Grant BF. Ọrịa na njiri mara nke ị alcoholụ mmanya na ịdabere na mmanya DSM-IV na United States: nsonaazụ Nnyocha National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic. J Stud Mmanya. 1997;58: 464-473. [PubMed]
6. Kandel DB, Yamaguchi K, Chen K. Stages na ọganihu na ntinye ọgwụ ọjọọ site n'oge uto ruo na ntorobịa: ihe akaebe ọzọ maka ụkpụrụ ụzọ. J Stud Mmanya. 1992;53: 447-457. [PubMed]
7. Wagner FA, Anthony JC. Site na ọgwụ izizi ruo ịdabere na ọgwụ: oge ​​uto nke ihe ize ndụ maka ịdabere wii wii, cocaine, na mmanya. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002;26: 479-488. [PubMed]
8. Giovino GA. Ọrịa ịba ọcha n'anya eji ụtaba n'etiti ndị ntorobịa United States. Nicotine Toba Res Suppl. 1999;1: S31-S40.
9. Breslau N, Johnson EO, Hiripi E, Kessler R. Nicotine ịdabere na United States: ngbanwe, ọnọdụ, na nnọgide ị smokingụ sịga. Arch Gen Ọrịa. 2001;58: 810-816. [PubMed]
10. Helzer JE, Burnam MA, McEvoy LT. Mmanya na-aba n'anya na ịdabere na ya. Na: Robins LN, Regier DA, ndị editọ. Ọrịa psychiatric na America: Ọmụmụ Mpaghara Catchment Epidemiologic. New York: Ndi oru nta akuko; 1991. 81 – 115.
11. Taioli E, Wynder E. Mmetụta dị n’afọ nke ị smokingụ sịga bidoro n’otu oge ị ofụ sịga n’oge okenye. N Engl J Med. 1991;325: 968-969. [PubMed]
12. Anthony JC, Petronis KR. Iji ọgwụ ọjọọ eme ihe n'oge mbụ na ihe ize ndụ nke nsogbu ọgwụ ọjọọ. Mmanya Na-egbu Mmanya Na-adabere. 1995;40: 9-15. [PubMed]
13. Kandel D, Chen K, Warner LA, Kessler RC, Grant B. Ọfụma na akara ngosipụta nke akara ngosipụta nke afọ gara aga dabere na mmanya, nicotine, wii wii na cocaine na US. Mmanya Na-egbu Mmanya Na-adabere. 1997;44: 11-29. [PubMed]
14. Carroll ME, Lac ST. Inweta nke IV amphetamine na nchịkwa onwe nke cocaine na oke dị ka ọrụ nke dose. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1997;129: 206-214. [PubMed]
15. Nestler EJ, Barrot M, Onwe DW. FosB: ihe na - agbanwe agbanwe nke ihe omimi riri ahu. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98: 11042-11046. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
16. Trad PV. Mmepe vidiyo nke na-akwalite ị abuseụ ọgwụ ọjọọ na ụmụaka. M J Ọgwụ Mmanya. 1994;20: 459-481. [PubMed]
17. Perkonigg A, Lieb R, Wittchen HU. Vakpa oke nke iji, mmetọ na ịdabere na ọgwụ ọjọọ n'etiti ndị na-eto eto na ndị na-eto eto nọ na mpaghara nlele. Eur gbakwunye Res. 1998;4: 58-66. [PubMed]
18. Rehm J, Gmel G, Room R, Frick U. Nkezi oke nke mmanya mmanya, usoro ị drinkingụ ihe ọ andụ andụ na ibu ibu metụtara ọnwụ na-eto eto na-eto eto na mpaghara Europe. Eur gbakwunye Res. 2001;7: 148-151. [PubMed]
19. Estroff TW, Schwartz RH, Hoffman NG. Co abuseụ ọgwụ cocaine na-eto eto: ikike iri mmadụ ahụ, omume na mmụọ ọgụgụ isi. Clin Pediatr. 1989;28: 550-555.
20. Kandel DB, Chen K. Ogologo anwụrụ anwụrụ na nicotine na United States: 1991 – 1993. Nicotine Tob Res. 2000;2: 263-274. [PubMed]
21. Regier DA, Ọrụ Ugbo, Rae DS, Locke BZ, Keith SJ, Judd LL, Goodwin FK. Ihe banyere nsogbu uche na mmanya na ọgwụ ọjọọ ndị ọzọ. JAMA. 1990;264: 2511-2518. [PubMed]
22. Blanco C, Moreyra P, Nunes EV, Saiz-Ruiz J, Ibanez A. ịgba chaa chaa: ịgba egwu ma ọ bụ mmanye. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2001;6: 167-176. [PubMed]
23. Ihe ndi mmadu nwere ike ime ka ihe ndi mmadu too uto. Mmanya Na-egbu Mmanya Na-adabere. 1999;55: 209-224. [PubMed]
24. Zeitlin H. Ọnọdụ akparamaagwa nke ihe ojoo banyere umuaka na umuaka. Mmanya Na-egbu Mmanya Na-adabere. 1999;55: 225-234. [PubMed]
25. Shaffer HJ. Okwu mmeghe: ịgba chaa chaa ntorobịa. J Gambl Stud. 2000;16: 113-114.
26. Rogers RD, Robbins TW. Nyochaa akwara ozi neurocognitive metụtara ya na iji ọgwụ ọjọọ eme ihe n'ụzọ na-adịghị ala ala. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2001;11: 250-257. [PubMed]
27. Moeller FG, Barratt ES, Dougherty DM, Schmitz JM, Swann AC. Akpọrọ obi nke akụkụ nke impulsivity. Am J Isi mgbaka. 2001;158: 1783-1793. [PubMed]
28. Evenden JL. Iche-iche. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;146: 348-361. [PubMed]
29. Vitacco MJ, Rogers R. Ndị na - akọ ọdịmma mmụọ: ọrụ nke nnabata, oke ume, na ịchọ ịmata ihe. J Am Acad Psychiatry Iwu. 2001;29: 374-382. [PubMed]
30. Dervaux A, Baylé FJ, Laqueille X, Bourdel MC, Le Borgne MH, Olié JP, Krebs MO. Abuse abuseụ ọgwụ na-egbu ihe na schizophrenia bụ ihe metụtara agụụ, agụụ na-achọ, ma ọ bụ anhedonia? Am J Isi mgbaka. 2001;158: 492-494. [PubMed]
31. Bechara A. Neurobiology nke ime mkpebi: ihe egwu na ụgwọ ọrụ. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2001;6: 205-216. [PubMed]
32. Petry NM, Casarella T. Ibelata oke nke ụgwọ ọrụ na-egbu oge na ndị na-a substanceụ mmanya nwere nsogbu ịgba chaa chaa. Mmanya Na-egbu Mmanya Na-adabere. 1999;56: 25-32. [PubMed]
33. Bechara A, Dolan S, Denburg N, Hinds A, Anderson SW, Nathan PE. Mkpebi na-eme ka mbelata, jikọtara ya na corzyx prefrontal corrosị, nke ekpughere na mmanya na ndị na-eme mkpesa. Neuropsychologia. 2001;39: 376-389. [PubMed]
34. Arnett J. Omume enweghị nchekwube n’oge uto: echiche mmepe. Nkpughe 1992;12: 339-373.
35. Okwu LP. Ụbụrụ na-eto eto na nkwupụta àgwà. Neurosci Biobehav Mkpu. 2000;24: 417-463. [PubMed]
36. Dorman C, Gaudiano P. Mkpali. Na: Arbib MA, onye nchịkọta akụkọ. Akwụkwọ ntuziaka nke ụbụrụ Brain na Netwọọkụ nke Neural. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press; 1998. 591 – 594.
37. Kalivas PW, Churchill L, Romanides A. Ntinye nke palladal-thalamocortical circuit na akparamaagwa. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1999;877: 64-70. [PubMed]
38. Rolls ET, Treves A. Netiwọki Neural na Ọrụ Brain. New York: Mahadum Oxford University; 1998. Usoro moto: cerebellum na basal ganglia; 189 – 226.
39. Pennartz CMA, Groenewegen HJ, Lopez da Silva FH. Ngwakọta akụrụngwa akakọtara ọnụ dị ka akwara jikọtara akwara ozi: njikọta akparamagwa, data electrophysiological na anatomical. Prog Neurobiol. 1994;42: 719-761. [PubMed]
40. Jentsch JD, Roth RH, Taylor JR. Ọrụ maka dopamine na akparamaagwa nke sistemu corticostriatal prefrontal: nsonaazụ maka nsogbu uche na ọgwụ psychotropic. Prog Brain Res. 2000;126: 433-453. [PubMed]
41. Berslọ RA, Potenza MN. Ọrịa nchịkwa. Na: Aminoff MJ, Daroff RB, ndị editọ. Encyclopedia nke Neurological Sciences. San Diego, Calif: Mmụta Ọmụmụ; (na pịa)
42. Groenewegen HJ, Wright CI, Beijer AV, Voorn P. Convergence na ịpụ iche na ntinye ma na - apụta. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1999;877: 49-63. [PubMed]
43. Panksepp J. Neuroscience na-emetụta. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998.
44. Swanson LW. Iwu akụkụ akụkụ nke omume mkpali. Nkwụsị Brain. 2000;886: 113-164. [PubMed]
45. Woodward D, Chang J, Janak P, Azarov A, Anstrom K. Mesolimbic ọrụ neuronal gafee steeti omume. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1999;877: 91-112. [PubMed]
46. Masterman DL, Cummings JL. Akụkụ okirikiri nke subcortical: ihe ndabere nke onye isi, mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya na omume mkpali. J Psychopharmacol. 1997;11: 107-114. [PubMed]
47. Rolls ET, Treves A. Netiwọki Neural na Ọrụ Brain. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998.
48. Kolomiets BP, Deniau JM, Mailly P, Menetrey A, Thierry AM. Mkpokorita na njikọta ozi na-aga n'okporo ụzọ cortico-subthalamic. J Neurosci. 2001;21: 5764-5772. [PubMed]
49. Chang JY, Janak PH, Woodward DJ. Eriri akwara ozi na akparamaagwa dị na medial prefrontal cortex na akwara na-akpọkọkọta n'oge oke. Neuroscience. 2000;99: 433-443. [PubMed]
50. Berslọ ndị RA, Krystal JK, Self DW. Ihe ndabere maka akọnuche na schizophrenia. Ọrịa Ọrịa. 2001;50: 71-83. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
51. O'Donnell P, Greene J, Pabello N, Lewis BL, Grace AA. Mgbanwe sel na-agba egbe na akwara. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1999;877: 157-175. [PubMed]
52. Potenza MN. Ọrịa neurobiology nke ịgba chaa chaa. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2001;6: 217-226. [PubMed]
53. Breiter HC, Aharon I, Kahneman D, Dale A, Shizgal P. Ntughari onyonyo nke mmeghachi omume neuronal maka atụmanya na ahụmịhe nke ego na ọghọm ya. Neuron. 2001;30: 619-639. [PubMed]
54. Panksepp J. Neuroscience emetụta: Ntọala nke mmetụta mmadụ na nke anụmanụ. New York: Mahadum Oxford University; 1998. Usoro elele na steeti na-atụ anya nke sistemụ akwara; 144 – 163.
55. Kalivas PW. Usoro Neurotransmitter nke dopamine neurons na mpaghara ventral tegmental. Brain Res Brain Res Mk. 1993;18: 75-113. [PubMed]
56. Strafella AP, Paus T, Barrett J, Dagher A. Ọkpụkpụ ndọtị transcranial magnetik nke cortex mmadụ prefrontal na-akpali ntọhapụ dopamine na nucleus caudate. J Neurosci. 2001;21: RC157. [PubMed]
57. Sano M, Marder K, ọrịa Dooneief G. Basal ganglia. Na: Fogel BS, Schiffer RB, Rao SM, ndị editọ. Neuropsychiatry. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996. peeji nke 805-834.
58. Ito R, Dalley JW, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ. Dopamine na-agbapụta n'azụ ụbụrụ mgbe ọ na-achọ omume cocaine na-achịkwa akara nke ejiri ọgwụ ọjọọ. J Neurosci. 2002;22: 6247-6253. [PubMed]
59. Finch DM. Neurophysiology nke na - ekekọta ihe synaptik sitere na cortex preamsal, amygdala, midline thalamus, na usoro nke hippocampal na - abanye na neurons nke caudate / putamen na nucleus accumbens. Hippocampus. 1996;6: 495-512. [PubMed]
60. Lavin A, Grace AA. Mgbanwe nke dorsal thalamic cell site na ventral pallidum: ọrụ ya na nhazi nke ọrụ thalamo-cortical site na basal ganglia. Synapse. 1994;18: 104-127. [PubMed]
61. Ọkụ LH, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ. Ọdịiche dị iche iche nke ọnya mkpụrụ osisi ahụ dị na amygdala, ventral subiculum na medial prefrontal cortex na azịza na mgbakwunye ọnọdụ na arụ ọrụ locomotor nke sitere na intus-accumbens infusions nke D-amphetamine. Behav Brain Res. 1993;55: 167-183. [PubMed]
62. Everitt BJ, Wolf ME. Psychomotor na-eri ahụ riri ahụ: anya usoro neural. J Neurosci. 2002;22: 3312-3320. [PubMed]
63. Berslọ ndị RA, Self DW. Mmeghachi omume na-akpali iche maka ụgwọ ọrụ eke na oke ọgwụ na oke nwere nrịanrịa anụ ahụ hippocampal: ụdị anụmanụ nke nyocha schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002;27: 889-905. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
64. Onwe DW, Nestler EJ. Ndaba na ichu ogwu: usoro ihe omumu na akuku. Mmanya Na-egbu Mmanya Na-adabere. 1998;51: 49-60. [PubMed]
65. Finlay JM, Zigmond MJ. Mmetụta nke nrụgide na Central dopaminergic neurons: enwere ike ịpụta ọrịa. Neurochem Res. 1997;22: 1387-1394. [PubMed]
66. Koepp MJ, Gunn RN, Lawrence AD, Cunningham VJ, Dagher A, Jones T, Brooks DJ, Ụlọ CJ, Grasby PM. Ihe akaebe maka ịhapụ dopamine mgbe a na-egwu egwuregwu vidio. Nature. 1998;393: 266-268. [PubMed]
67. Volkow ND, Fowler JS. Ịṅụ ọgwụ ọjọọ, ọrịa nke ịmanye na ịkwọ ụgbọala: itinye aka na corbex orbitofrontal. Cereb Cortex. 2000;10: 318-325. [PubMed]
68. Ljungberg T, Apicella P, Schultz W. Nzaghachi nke anụ enwe dopamine neurons n'oge ịmụ banyere mmeghachi omume omume. J Neurophysiol. 1992;67: 145-163. [PubMed]
69. Lipska BK, Jaskiw GE, Chrapusta S, Karoum F, Weinberger DR. Ọkpụkpụ Ibotenic acid nke ventral hippocampus na - emetụta dopamine na metabolites ya na ngwongwo akwara na prefrontal cortex na oke ahụ. Nkwụsị Brain. 1992;585: 1-6. [PubMed]
70. Badiani A, Oates MM, Robinson TE. Mgbanwe ụda uche nke oke morphine na oke ahụ site na mkpalite nke usoro. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2000;151: 273-282. [PubMed]
71. Ferster CB, Skinner BF. Usoro Mbido. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts; 1957.
72. Waelti P, Dickinson A, Schultz W. Dopamine azaghachi na nkwenye echiche nke usoro mmụta mmụta. Nature. 2001;412: 43-48. [PubMed]
73. Horger BA, Iyasere CA, Berhow MT, Messer CJ, Nestler EJ, Taylor JR. Mmalite nke mo-locootor na ugwọ onyinye na cocaine site na ntughari nego nke neurotrophic. J Neurosci. 1999;19: 4110-4122. [PubMed]
74. Gurden H, Tassin JP, Jay TM. Ikwesiri iguzosi ike n'ihe nke usoro mesocortical dopaminergic dị mkpa maka ngosipụta zuru oke na ogologo ogologo oge na vivo hippocampal-prefrontal cortex. Neurosci. 1999;94: 1019-1027.
75. Mulder AB, Arts MPM, Lopes da Silva FH. Mkpokọ nke mkpụmkpụ mkpụmkpụ-na ogologo nke hiọpọọsis ruo n'ụdị okpokoro ụzọ ahụ na prefrontal cortex dị na oke, nọ na vivo. Eur J Neurosci. 1997;9: 1603-1611. [PubMed]
76. Robinson T, Kolb B. Mgbanwe na morphology nke dendrites na dendritic spines dị na ngụkọta nke ngwongwo na ọnya prefrontal na-esochi usoro ọgwụgwọ ugboro ugboro na amphetamine ma ọ bụ cocaine. Eur J Neurosci. 1999;11: 1598-1604. [PubMed]
77. Hyman SE, Malenka RC. Mmanya na ụbụrụ: akwara ozi nke ịmanye na ịnọgidesi ike. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2001;2: 695-703. [PubMed]
78. Robinson TE, Berridge KC. Ihe na-adịghị mma maka ịṅụ ọgwụ ọjọọ: ihe mmetuta-ịchọta ihe ọmụma nke ahụ riri ahụ. Igwe Mkpuchi Mkpu. 1993;18: 247-291. [PubMed]
79. Deroche V, Le Moal M, Piazza PV. Nchịkwa onwe cocaine na-eme ka ihe ndị na-akpali akpali nke ọgwụ dị na oke. Eur J Neurosci. 1999;11: 2731-2736. [PubMed]
80. Brown GL, Linnoila MI. Ọmụmụ CSF serotonin metabolite (5-HIAA) na-enwe nkụda mmụọ, ume ọkụ, na ime ihe ike. J Clin Psychiatry. 1990 April;51(url): 31 – 41. [PubMed]
81. Virkunnen M, Rawlins R, Tokola R. CSF biochemistries, glucose metabolism, na usoro mmemme nke ndị omekome na-eme ihe ike, ndị na-ere ọkụ, na ndị ọrụ afọ ofufo dị mma. Arch Gen Ọrịa. 1994;51: 20-27. [PubMed]
82. Nordin C, Eklundh T. Kwesịrị ka CSF 5-HIAA gbanwee omume ndị na-agba chaa chaa nwoke. CNS Spectrums. 1999;4: 25-33. [PubMed]
83. Taylor JR, Jentsch JD. Ugboro ugboro ugboro nchịkwa nke psychomotor stimulant ọgwụ na-agbanwe nnweta omume Pavlovian omume agwa ka oke: mmetụta cocaine, d-amphetamine na 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“Ecstasy”) Ọrịa Ọrịa. 2001;50: 137-143. [PubMed]
84. Fuller RW. Mmetụta Fluoxetine na arụ ọrụ serotonin na akpasara agwa. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1996;794: 90-97. [PubMed]
85. Cherek DR, Lane SD, Pietras CJ, Steinberg JL. Mmetụta nke nchịkwa paroxetine na-adịghị ala ala na usoro nke ike ike na nke na-akpali mmeghachi omume nke ụmụ nwoke toro eto nwere akụkọ ịkpa agwa. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2002;159: 266-274. [PubMed]
86. White SR, Obradovic T, Imel KM, Wheaton MJ. Nsonaazụ nke methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “Ecstasy”) na monoaminergic neurotransmission na sistemụ akwara. Prog Neurobiol. 1996;49: 455-479. [PubMed]
87. Damasio H, Grabowski T, Frank R, Galaburda AM, Damasio AR. Nloghachi nke Phineas Gage: amị banyere ụbụrụ site na okpokoro isi nke onye ọrịa a ma ama. Sayensị. 1994;264: 1102-1105. [PubMed]
88. McAllister TW. Neuropsychiatric sequelae nke isi unan. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1992;15: 395-413. [PubMed]
89. Ames D, Cummings JL, Wirshing WC, Quinn B, Mahler M. Ntughari uche na akparamagwa ihu na ihu iru. J Neuropsychiatry Nyocha Neurosci. 1994;6: 100-113. [PubMed]
90. Raine A, Lencz T, Bihrele S, LaCasse L, Colletti P. wedata oke isi awọ okwu ma belata ọrụ nnwere onwe na nsogbu akparamagwa mmadụ. Arch Gen Ọrịa. 2000;57: 119-127. [PubMed]
91. Ommaya AK, Salazar AM, Dannenberg AL, Ommaya AK, Chervinsky AB, Schwab K. Nsonaazụ mgbe mmerụ ahụ ụbụrụ na usoro agha ọgwụ US. J Trauma. 1996;41: 972-975. [PubMed]
92. Barnfield TV, Leathem JM. Ọnọdụ na nsonaazụ nke mmerụ ahụ ụbụrụ na ị substanceụ ihe ọ substanceụ populationụ na ọnụ ọgụgụ ụlọ mkpọrọ New Zealand. Brain Inj. 1998;12: 455-466. [PubMed]
93. Delmonico RL, Hanley-Peterson P, Englander J. Group psychotherapy maka ndị nwere mmerụ ahụ ụbụrụ: njikwa nke nkụda mmụọ na iji ọgwụ eme ihe. J Isi Trauma Rehab. 1998;13: 10-22.
94. Dao-Castellana MH, Samson Y, Legault F, Martinot JL, Aubin HJ, Crouzel C, Feldman L, Barrucand D, Rancurel G, Feline A, Syrota A. Ihu nhụjuanya nke isi na - adịghị ala ala bụ ihe na - adịghị ala ala: nchoputa nke metabolic na neuropsychological. Medychol Med. 1998;28: 1039-1048. [PubMed]
95. Liu X, Matochik JA, Cadet JL, London ED. Obere olu nke prefrontal lobe na polysubstance emetụtaghị: ọmụmụ ihe onyonyo resonance. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1998;18: 243-252. [PubMed]
96. Rogers RD, Everitt B, Baldacchino A, Blackshaw AJ, Swainson R, Wynne K, Baker NB, Hunter J, Carthy T, Booker E, London M, Deakin JFW, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. Enweghi ike mkpochapu na nkpebi nke mkpebi nke ndi akwara amphetamine na-adighi ala, ndi oria opiate, ndi oria nwere mmebi nke prefrontal cortex, na ndi choputara onwe ha nke oma. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999;20: 322-339. [PubMed]
97. Franklin TR, Acton PD, Maldjian JA, Grey JD, Croft JR, Dackis CA, O'Brien CP, Nwanyi AR. Ibelata agba agba agba agba agba agba na mkpụkọ mkpụkọ, orbitofrontal, cingulate, na oge nke ndị ọrịa cocaine. Ọrịa Ọrịa. 2002;51: 134-142. [PubMed]
98. McGregor A, Baker G, Roberts DC. Mmetụta 6-hydroxydopamine ọnya nke coial pre medal medial na nchịkwa onwe cocaine n'okpuru usoro nhazi nke nkwado. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1996;53: 5-9. [PubMed]
99. Weissenborn R, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ. Mmetụta ọnya ọnya medial ma ọ bụ ọgịrịga ihu coingex maka ịza maka cocaine n'okpuru usoro ahaziri nke abụọ na usoro nke abụọ iji nwekwuo ike oke. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1997;134: 242-257. [PubMed]
100. Karreman M, Westerink BHC, Moghaddam B. Excitatory amino acid na-anabata ndị na mpaghara ventral tegmental mpaghara na-achịkwa mwepụta dopamine na ventral striatum. J Neurochem. 1996;67: 601-607. [PubMed]
101. Youngren KD, Daly DA, Moghaddam B. Ihe omume amino acid na-adị n'ụdị dopamine n'ime ngụkọta akwara. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1993;264: 289-293. [PubMed]
102. Brady KT, Myrick H, McElroy S. Mmekọrịta dị n'etiti nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe, nsogbu nchịkwa nchịkwa, na oke iwe. Am J Jide. 1998;7: 221-230. [PubMed]
103. Jentsch JD, Taylor JR. Mbipu nke na-esi na mbido na-emebiga ihe ókè na iji ọgwụ ọjọọ eme ihe: ihe na-egosi nchịkwa omume site na nkwalite nke ụgwọ ọrụ. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;146: 373-390. [PubMed]
104. Feinberg I J Ọrịa Ọgwụ. 1983;17: 319-334. [PubMed]
105. Echiche nke mmepe nke Yates T. Na: Lewis M, onye nchịkọta akụkọ. Psymụaka na ndị ụbụrụ isi. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996. peeji nke 134-155.
106. Moore SM, Rosenthal DA. Venturesomeness, enweghi ike ime ihe, na akparama agwa di oke ntorobia. Kwụsị Egwuregwu Egwuregwu. 1992;76: 98. [PubMed]
107. Siegel J, Shaughnessy MF. Onwere oge mbu maka ihe obula: ighota nwata. Oge ntorobịa. 1995;30: 217-221. [PubMed]
108. Leckman JF, Cohen DJ. Ọrịa Tic. Na: Lewis M, onye nchịkọta akụkọ. Psymụaka na ndị ụbụrụ isi. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1996. peeji nke 622-629.
109. Laviola G, Adriani W, Terranova ML, Gerra G. Psychobiological ize ndụ ihe maka vulnerability ka psychostimulants na ụmụ mmadụ na ụmụ anụmanụ ụdị. Neurosci Biobehav Mkpu. 1999;23: 993-1010. [PubMed]
110. Spear LP, Brake SC. Periadolescence: omume ịdabere na afọ na nzaghachi psychopharmacological na oke. Dev Psychobiol. 1983;16: 83-109. [PubMed]
111. Adriani W, Chiarotti F, Laviola G. Ihe omimi ohuru nke achoro na nlezianya d-amphetamine nke di na periadolescent ma e jiri ya tụnyere ụmụ oke. Behav Neurosci. 1998;112: 1152-1166. [PubMed]
112. Laviola G, Wood RG, Kuhn C, Francis RLP. Ntụgharị uche nke cocaine na mpaghara oke na ụmụ oke. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1995;275: 345-357. [PubMed]
113. Laviola G, Pascucci T, Pieretti S. Striatal dopamine chọpụtara nke D-amphetamine na mpaghara ịgba ọtọ mana ọ bụghị oke oke. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2001;68: 115-124. [PubMed]
114. Takeuchi Y, Matsushita H, Sakai H, Kawano H, Yoshimoto K, Sawada T. Ngbanwe mgbanwe nke mmiri mkpụrụ akụkụ nke ihe omimi monoamine kpughere na usoro sistemụ akpịrịkpa Coulochem. J Nwa Neurol. 2000;15: 267-270. [PubMed]
115. Lambe E, Krimer LS, Goldman-Rakic ​​PS. Ọkpụkpụ mmepe nke catecholamine na ntinye serotonin ka amata usoro neurons nke dị na pre ቅድመalal cortex nke anụ rhesus. J Neurosci. 2000;20: 8780-8787. [PubMed]
116. Garcia-Segura L, Chowen J, Parducz A, Naftolin F. Gonadal homonụ dị ka ndị na-akwalite plastik synaptik sistem: usoro ekwentị. Prog Neurobiol. 1994;44: 279-307. [PubMed]
117. Shughrue PJ, Merchenthaler I. Estrogen abụghị naanị "homonụ mmekọahụ": saịtị ọhụụ maka ihe estrogen na hippocampus. N'ihu Neuroendocrinol. 2000;21: 95-101. [PubMed]
118. Zarrow MX, Naqvi RH, Denenberg VH. Androgen-indurated precocious puberty na oke bekee na mgbochi ya site na nkwonkwo hippocampal. Ọgwụgwụ. 1969;84: 14-19. [PubMed]
119. Gorski R. Mmepe nke eriri afọ, XV: ịkpa oke nke sistemụ akwara. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38: 344-346. [PubMed]
120. Sizonenko PC. Endocrinology na preadolescents na umuaka. Am J Dis Nwa. 1978;132: 704-712. [PubMed]
121. Buchanan CM, Eccles JS, Becker JB. Ọ bụ ndị na-eto eto bụ ndị emetụtara na homonụ na-akpasu iwe: ihe akaebe maka mmetụta mmegharị nke homonụ na ọnọdụ na omume n'oge uto. Akpọrọ Obi. 1992;111: 62-107. [PubMed]
122. McClelland JL, McNaughton BL, O'Reilly RC. Kedu ihe kpatara e ji enwe usoro mmụta dị iche iche na hippocampus na neocortex? nghọta site na ihe ịga nke ọma na ọdịda nke usoro njikọ ihe na ebe nchekwa. Okpukpe Mkpuchi. 1995;102: 419-457. [PubMed]
123. Schmajuk NA, Christionsen B, Cox L. Haloperidol weghachiri azụ mgbochi mgbochi site na nkwonkwo hippocampal: data na echiche. Behav Neurosci. 2000;114: 659-670. [PubMed]
124. Legault M, Wisdom R. Ihe ọhụụ na - ewepụta ihe dị na akwara na - eme ka ọnụnọ ya dabere na ngbanye ikuku na - agbanye site na ventral subiculum na glutamatergic neurotransmission na mpaghara ventral tegmental. Eur J Neurosci. 2001;13: 819-828. [PubMed]
125. Woo TU, Pucak ML, Kye CH, Matus CV, Lewis DA. Ntughari nke Peripubertal nke intrinsic na njikọta na monkey prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience. 1997;80: 1149-1158. [PubMed]
126. Williams BR, Ponesse JS, Schachar RJ, Logan GD, Tannock R. Mmepe nke inhibitory na-achịkwa ndụ niile. Ezi uche. 1999;35: 205-213. [PubMed]
127. Goodin DS, Squires KC, Henderson BH, Starr A. ọdịiche ndị metụtara afọ dị iche iche na ikike pụrụ iche na nyocha nke ihe ọmụmụ mmadụ. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1978;44: 447-458. [PubMed]
128. Giedd JN, Snell JW, Lange N, Rajapakse JC, Casey BJ, Kozuch PL, Vaituzis AC, Vauss YC, Hamburger SD, Kaysen D, Rapoport JL. Ngosiputa ikike ikike ndọta nke mmepe ụbụrụ mmadụ: afọ 4 – 18. Cereb Cortex. 1996;6: 551-560. [PubMed]
129. Paus T, Zijdenbos A, Worsley K, Collins DL, Blumenthal J, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL, Evans AC. Usoro omumu nke uzo aru nke umuaka na umuaka: na omumu omumu. Sayensị. 1999;283: 1908-1911. [PubMed]
130. Kety SS. Ọbara ọbara nke mmadụ n'ụba yana oriri oxygen ka metụtara ịka nká. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis. 1956;35: 31-45. [PubMed]
131. Chugani HR, Phelps ME, Mazziotta JC. Ọmụmụ Positron na-aga n'ọmụmụ ihe gbasara mmepe mmadụ na-arụ ọrụ. Ann Neurol. 1987;322: 487-497. [PubMed]
132. Yakovlev PI, Lecours AR. Usoro ihe omimi nke Myelogenetic nke Mgbakọ nke ụbụrụ. Philadelphia: FA Davis; 1967.
133. Nudo RJ, Masterton RB. Mkpokọ mkpalite [14C] 2-deoxyglucose na akpọpụta ọrụ synaptik na sistemụ nyocha nke etiti. J Comp Neurol. 1986;245: 553-565. [PubMed]
134. Lewis DA. Development nke prefrontal cortex n'oge uto: omimi ngwangwa nural na sekit na sekit na isi mgbaka. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1997;16: 385-398. [PubMed]
135. Huttenlocher PR. Ihe njuputa akwara na akpukpo iru mmadu: mgbanwe nke uto na uto nke ịka nká. Nkwụsị Brain. 1979;163: 195-205. [PubMed]
136. Anderson SA, Classey JD, Conde F, Lund JS, Lewis DA. Mmeputa Synchronous nke pyramidal neuron dendritic spines na parvalbumin-immunoreactive chandelier neuron axon na oyi akwa III nke enwe prefrontal cortex. Neurosci. 1995;67: 7-22.
137. Rutherford LC, Nelson SB, Turrigiano GG. BDNF nwere mmetụta dị iche na njupụta nke pyramidal neuron na synapses inter-neuron. Neuron. 1998;21: 521-530. [PubMed]
138. Miller KD. Ọnọdụ Synaptik: asọmpi na imekọ ihe ọnụ na plastik synaptik. Neuron. 1996;17: 371-374. [PubMed]
139. Alexander GE. Ọrụ mmepe nke cortex frontal cortex na enwe: omume na ọmụmụ elektrophysiological. Neurosci Res Prog Bull. 1982;20: 471-479.
140. Spitzer M. Uche N'ime Net. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press; 1999.
141. Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Wilens T, Chu MP. Mkpakọrịta n'etiti ADHD na ihe na-arụ ọrụ psychoactive na-eji nsogbu ahụ. Am J Jide. 1997;6: 318-329. [PubMed]
142. Biederman J, Wilens T, Mick E, Spencer T, Faraone SV. Mlọ ọgwụ ọgwụ nke akpachapụ anya / nsogbu hyperactivity aghara na - ebelata ihe ọghọm maka nsogbu ihe eji eme ihe. Ọrịa Ụmụaka. 1999;104: 1-5. [PubMed]
143. Lynskey MT, Wlọ Nzukọ W. Ntị mpekere hyperactivity aghara na nsogbu eji ihe eji eme ihe: enwere njikọ na-akpata nsogbu? Ịṅụ ọgwụ ọjọọ. 2001;96: 815-822. [PubMed]
144. DelBello MP, Soutullo CA, Hendricks W, Niemeier RT, McElroy SL, Strakowski SM. Ọgwụ mkpali tupu e mee ụmụaka na-arịa ọrịa uche na-esighi ike: inwe ọmụmụ ihe na afọ mmalite. Diski Bipolar. 2001;3: 53-57. [PubMed]