Atụmatụ mmepụta ihe n'oge uto na ụmụ nwoke na nwanyị: nghọta nke obe na-agbanwe (2011)

Oge uto bụ oge mgbanwe n'etiti nwata na ntozu nke na-agụnye nnukwu mgbanwe n'ime usoro ụbụrụ nke yiri ụfọdụ, ma ọ bụghị ihe niile, mgbanwe omume. Ngosi elu na mmeghachi omume mmetụta uche na nhazi ụgwọ ọrụ na-eso ụdị ntụgharị U n'usoro mmalite na mgbaghara, yana ọnụ ọgụgụ kasị elu na-eme n'oge uto. Otú ọ dị, nhazi ọgụgụ isi na-agbaso usoro mmepe nke linear karịa. Nyocha a ga-elekwasị anya na mgbanwe n'ime akụkụ ndị bụ isi ma gosipụta mmekọrịta dị n'etiti mgbanwe ụbụrụ na omume, yana ihe akaebe sitere na imaging resonance magnetik arụ ọrụ (fMRI) n'ime ụmụ mmadụ na ọmụmụ ihe omimi nke ndị na-anabata ihe na ihe mgbaàmà na anụmanụ. A ga-eji mgbanwe ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma mee ihe iji ghọta ka omume na-adịghị ahụkebe na-esi ebili n'oge uto. Anyị na-ebute ọmụmụ ihe gbasara ụlọ ọgwụ na nke izizi iji nye usoro akwara maka ịkọwa oge uto na ọrụ ọ na-eme na ngbanwe ruo n'ịbụ okenye.

1.1 Ịkọwa oge uto

Enwere ike ịkọwa oge uto dị ka oge dị n'agbata afọ 10-19 n'ime mmadụ (WHO, 2010s), n'etiti afọ abụọ na anọ na primates (Schwandt et al., 2007), na n'etiti 35-60 ụbọchị na-eto eto na òké (Andersen et al., 2000; McCutcheon na Marinelli, 2009). Okwu (2000) malite mkparịta ụka ya banyere oge a site n'oge uto nke akọwara dị ka oge mgbanwe omume. A na-ahụkarị mgbanwe omume omume dị otú ahụ n'ofe ụdị anụ ahụ dị iche iche site n'inwewanye mmetụta maka ndị ọgbọ na ihe gbasara ọha mmadụ (Blakemore, akwụkwọ akụkọ a; Forbes na Dahl, 2005; Steinberg, 2010; Panksepp, 1981), ize ndụ (Laviola et al., 2003), na njikwa ọgụgụ isi na-eto eto (Casey et al., 2008). Nkọwa nke oge uto nwekwara ike ịdabere n'ụzọ ezi uche dị na ya na mgbanwe gonadal dịka ọ dị mkpa na ntozu oke mmekọahụ (Egwu na Foster, 2004). Arụmụka ndị e depụtara n'ebe a adịghị agwụ agwụ ma e kwesịghị iji ya mee ihe n'ụzọ doro anya, kama dị ka ebe ntụnyere aka.

Ọkwa mmepe ọhụrụ, ntolite na-etolite, na-apụta n'etiti afọ 18-29 n'ime mmadụ.Arnett, 2000). Akọwapụtara n'ọdịnala, ntozu ntozu n'ime mmadụ na-akọwa nleba anya na ọ bụ ezie na ọtụtụ mgbanwe neurobiological metụtara oge uto agwụla, akụkụ ahụ 'etozubeghị' dịka ọ na-egosi site na igbu oge n'inweta ọrụ ma ọ bụ alụmdi na nwunye. N'akụkọ ihe mere eme, G. Stanley Hall (1904) kọwara oge 'ọhụrụ' ntozu okè nke kọwara ntolite site n'echiche akụ na ụba nke ọha na eze nke mere ka e nwekwuo nnabata nke ọkwa dị iche. N'ihi ya, anyị achọpụtala mgbanwe neurobiological pụrụ iche na nke dị mkpa nke na-akọwa oge uto. Ọ bụ ezie na nyocha a lekwasịrị anya n'ụzọ bụ isi na akara nrịanrịa neurobiological nke oge uto, ọ dị mkpa ịghọta na n'ụdị òké na oge dị adị nke nwere ike weghara okenye na-etolite (obere ozi dị na primates na-abụghị mmadụ). Dị ka a tụlere n'okpuru, oke na-egosi mgbanwe dị ịrịba ama n'etiti 40-60 ụbọchị, ma oge n'etiti 60-100 ụbọchị na-ejikọta ya na nwayọọ nwayọọ na-agbanwe agbanwe nke na-eji nwayọọ nwayọọ na-edozi. Nke a nwere ike ịbụ oge "onye toro eto" ọhụrụ nke kwesịrị nlebara anya nyocha, ọ bụghị ihe ngosi mgbasa ozi iji kọwaa mgbanwe omenala ọhụrụ na mba ndị mepere emepe? Ihe dị mkpa nke ịkọwapụta ọkwa bụ ịbịarute nkwenye nke ọnọdụ ntozu okè nke organism nke a kọwara iji kwado ụdị obe na ntụnyere mmekọahụ.

1.2 Gịnị mere e ji nwee oge mgbanwe dị otú ahụ?

Site n'echiche evolushọn, e mebere omume site na nhọrọ eke iji kwado onye ọ bụla ka ọ nwee ihe ịga nke ọma n'ime ọha mmadụ na nke anụ ahụ dịka onye toro eto, gụnyere ịchọta onye ọlụlụ na ịmụ nwa. Usoro a na-ejedebe n'oge uto. N'omume, ụmụ anụmanụ na-esi na òké gaa na mmadụ niile na-enweta oge mgbanwe mgbanwe ebe ịnyagharị site na ntolite na mbelata mmetụta nne na nna jikọtara ya na mmetụta ndị ọgbọ na-abawanye, asọmpi mmekọahụ, na ihe ịma aka ime mkpebi ọhụrụ (nke nyochara ya. Okwu, 2000). Neuroplasticity na-enye ohere maka nzaghachi kwesịrị ekwesị na gburugburu ebe a na-apụta na nke a pụtara ìhè na mmepe nke ụgwọ ọrụ na usoro metụtara mmetụta (Galvan, 2010). Agbanyeghị, usoro mmepe ndị ọzọ na-egosipụta mmụba na-aga n'ihu na njikwa ọgụgụ isi n'oge uto nke na-akwado ime mkpebi (Geier na Luna, 2009; Somerville na Casey, 2010). Ọnụ, Yin na Yang a na-adabere na mmepe mmepe, ebe ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ime ndị na-eto eto na-agbasi mbọ ike na mgbanwe nke ndị ọgbọ na ndị nne na nna na-apụta dị ka ndị nwere onwe ha, ndị na-achịkwa onwe ha ka usoro ndị a na-enweta nguzozi. Mgbe mgbanwe ndị a na-etolite nke ọma, a na-eme mgbanwe n'otu n'otu na ike gburugburu ebe obibi na ọha mmadụ pụrụ iche. Agbanyeghị, njehie na usoro a na-ebute omume adịghị mma. Mwepụta nke psychopathology nwere ike ịpụta n'ụzọ ụfọdụ site na mgbagha site na nhụsianya nkịtị nke maturation, na-ebute okwu ogologo ndụ na nhazi ụgwọ ọrụ na mmetụta mmetụta. Ewezuga ihe na-adịghị mma nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na-akpata, njehie na mmepụta nke oke na ịkwachaa neurons ma ọ bụ ndị na-anabata ya, nchacha nke ọma nke eriri eriri ma ọ bụ ikpughe mkparị nke nwata nwere ike inye aka. Nlebanya a ga-elekwasị anya na usoro mmepe ndị a na ụbụrụ mammalian, na-emesi ike n'ozuzu ya na ụdị kama ọ bụghị ihe atụ (dịka ọmụmaatụ, Andersen na Teicher, 2008; 2009; Marco et al., 2011).

1.3 Ụdị mgbanwe ahụ

Usoro usoro akwara ozi na-enye nghọta maka mgbagwoju anya nke ọdịdị mmepe ntorobịa. Dị ka Paus kwuru (Paus et al., 2008), Usoro nke akụkụ dị iche iche nke ụbụrụ na-arụ ọrụ na-egosi n'ụzọ doro anya otú mpaghara mpaghara na ọrụ dị iche iche si eme ka ụbụrụ dị n'oge uto nwee ọtụtụ akụkụ. N'ime nyocha a, anyị na-enyocha ihe a maara banyere mgbanwe na ọnọdụ mmepe na-elekwasị anya na usoro ntorobịa dị ka akọwara n'ofe ụdị anụ mammali na n'etiti nwoke na nwanyị. Usoro anyị gbadoro ụkwụ n'otu akụkụ n'ụdị triadic, nke Ernst na ndị ọrụ ibe kọwapụtara (Ernst na Fudge, 2009; Ernst na Korelitz, 2009). Ihe atụ triadic na-agbanye mgbanwe omume n'ime usoro atọ bụ isi, ma ọ bụ ọnụ, ya bụ usoro mmetụta, usoro ụgwọ ọrụ, na mgbochi / nzaghachi nzaghachi. Ọnụ atọ ndị a dị iche iche na-arụkọ ọrụ ọnụ iji mepụta àgwà ndị na-egosipụta ntozu oke ntorobịa. Ọnụ ụzọ nke ọ bụla nwere usoro mmepe nke ya, nke na-emepụta usoro ntorobịa na ọnọdụ mgbanwe. Nsonaazụ omume ikpeazụ nwere ike ịdabere na ọnụ ọnụ nke ọkwa enyere ma ọ bụ nwere ike pụta site na ọnụ adịghị ike nke na-adịghị arụ ọrụ nhazi. Ụdị triadic n'ụdị ya dị mfe na-enye ịkọwa mmekọ mmekọ nke nwata na ọtụtụ mkpali mmetụta uche, mgbanwe na mmetụta ụgwọ ọrụ, yana mgbanwe akara na njikwa cortical na mmepe ọgụgụ isi. N'ebe a, anyị ga-eji usoro a kọwaa mgbanwe zuru ezu na mmepe ntorobịa n'ofe ụdị na mmekọahụ na-elekwasị anya na mpaghara ụbụrụ cortical na limbic.

2.1. Àgwà ndị e ji emebiga ihe ókè na ịkwachaa

2.2. Mmepụta na ịkwachaa sistemu nnabata

2.2.1 Mmepụta nke ndị na-anabata monoamine

Mmepụta na ịkwachaa nke sistemu nnabata dị mgbagwoju anya ma e jiri ya tụnyere mgbanwe synapti, na ebili mmiri abụọ nke mgbanwe afọ na njupụta na-eme. Ọtụtụ sistemụ neurotransmitter, gụnyere dopamine (Gelbard et al., 1990; Kalsbeek et al., 1988; Lankford et al., 1988; Todd, 1992), norepinephrine (Feeney na Westerberg, 1990; Kline et al., 1994na serotonin (Kuppermann na Kasamatsu, 1984; Lauder na Krebs, 1978; Whitaker-Azmitia na Azmitia, 1986) nwere oke trophic ọrụ na ụbụrụ. A na-ejikọta okwu ectopic nke subtypes dị iche iche nke nnabata n'oge mmalite mmalite ọmụmụ ọmụmụ na mmụba nke omepụta synapti, uto axonal, na nhazi synapse. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, okwu ectopic nke ndị na-anabata serotonin 5-HT7 n'ime hippocampus na-eme obere oge n'ime izu abụọ mbụ nke ndụ na oke.Louiset et al., 2006; Vizuete et al., 1997). N'otu aka ahụ, a na-ahụ onye na-ebugharị serotonin (5-HTT) na neurons na-abụghị serotonergic embrayo na cortical na striatal neuroepithelia na sensory thalamic ụzọ postnatally na P0-P10 (Zhou et al., 2000). A na-ahụkwa ngosipụta nke 5-HTT na vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) na akwara cranial sensọ, na hippocampus, cortex cerebral, septum, na amygdala.Lebrand et al., 1998). Ekwenyere na ndị na-ebugharị na/ma ọ bụ ndị na-anabata ya na-eduzi innervation neuronal. Mmetụta nke trophic neurotransmitters na-adabere na ntinye uche (Mazer et al., 1997), na-atụ aro na ọkwa ntọala dị oke mkpa maka ọdịdị mmetụta. A na-ahụkwa okwu nnabata ectopic yiri ya na ihe ọcha. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, a na-ahụ α2 onye na-anabata noradrenergic n'ihe ọcha na-etobeghị na oke (oke).Happe et al., 2004). Agbanyeghị, ọ bụghị okwu nnabata niile na-arụ ọrụ trophic.

Ebili nke abụọ nke nnabata ihe karịrị nkwupụta na-eme n'oge uto, n'oge ndị nnabata na usoro akara ngosi na-egosi ngbanwe nke ọdịdị U-nke na-ebute ọkwa ngosipụta nke na-adịgide ruo n'oge. N'adịghị ka ectopic, okwu na-adịru nwa oge nke fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ okenye, ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị a na-anabata ya ji nwayọọ nwayọọ na-ebili, na-arị elu ma na-adalata n'oge ntozu okè. A na-ahụ ntụle mgbanwe nke nnabata ndị ntorobịa na Isiokwu 1, na-emesi ike na ndị nabatara n'ime mpaghara limbic na cortical. Ogologo oge mmepụta na ịkwachaa na-adabere na mpaghara (mpaghara).Andersen et al., 2000), a na-ahụkwa ya n'ọtụtụ nrịbama. Usoro nnabata dị iche iche gụnyere: dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, neurotensin, endocannabinoid, na cholinergic (Andersen et al., 2000; Eggan et al., 2010; Lidow et al., 1991). Na enwe rhesus, Lidow et al (Lidow et al., 1991) egosila na njupụta nke ndị na-anabata ya na-etolite na concert na synaptogenesis.

 

Isiokwu 1

Ọ bụrụ na anyị lekwasịrị anya n'ihu na microcircuits iji nyochaa nkesa nke ndị nnata metụtara afọ, nsonaazụ na-adịbeghị anya na-atụ aro ọbụna mgbanwe dị mgbagwoju anya n'oge uto. Nkesa nnata n'onwe ya na-agbanwe n'etiti phenotypes neuronal dị iche iche. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, ndị na-anabata dopamine D1 adịghị ka ọ na-agbanwe ọkwa ha nke ọma n'etiti afọ ịgbapụ ara ruo n'ịbụ okenye na neurons GABAergic (Brenhouse et al., 2008; Vincent et al., 1995). N'ụzọ dị iche, mmepụta na ịkwachaa nke ndị na-anabata D1 na-eme nke ọma na neurons mmepụta glutamatergic (Brenhouse et al., 2008). Kpọmkwem, naanị 2% nke amụma glutamatergic ndị a bụ D1 immunoreactive na oke ụmụ oke, na-ebili ruo 44% na P40, wee daa na 6% na ntozu oke na P100. Ọ dị mkpa ka enyocha ma ndị nnabata ndị ọzọ gosipụtara ngosipụta dị iche na subtypes neuronal ndị ọzọ n'oge uto. Isiokwu 1 na-enye ozi na klaasị nnabata ndị ọzọ na-agbanwe, mana amataghị ụdị neuronal akọwapụtara. N'ụzọ dị iche, ndị na-anabata D2 na-egbochi ọrụ nke GABA interneurons na-agba ọsọ ngwa ngwa mgbe ha tolitere (O'Donnell, 2010; Tseng na O'Donnell, 2007). Neuron ndị a dị mkpa maka ijikọta ọtụtụ ntinye nke ọma na ozugbo. Ya mere, nkesa nkesa n'ime microcircuits na ike ọrụ ha na-agbanwe nke ukwuu n'oge uto.

3.1. Innervation pụrụ iche nke sistemụ neurotransmitter

N'akụkụ a, anyị na-atụle ka usoro neurotransmitter kpọmkwem si abanye mpaghara ụbụrụ nyere. Innervation na-amalite tupu ịmụ nwa, mana ọ na-aga n'ihu ruo n'oge ntorobịa na ntozu okè. Otú ọ dị, ọtụtụ ọmụmụ ihe na-agafe n'ịkọwa oge uto ma na-eche na innervation na-aga n'ihu n'ụdị ahịrị. Ọmụmụ ihe gbasara njikọta ọnwụ mmadụ na-agaghị ekwe omume ime, ebe ọ bụ na ụlọ ọrụ akụrụngwa ụbụrụ na-ekesa anụ ahụ ụbụrụ n'ime obere mpaghara na-egbochi ịchụ traktị. Mkpebi nke MRI anaghị ekwe ka nchọta traktị ọnụ ọgụgụ neuronal kpọmkwem ịkparịta ụka n'etiti onwe (ọ bụghị site na traktị, nke na-enyocha ma myelin na axon caliber n'otu oge). A na-ejikarị njupụta nke ndị njem dị ka ihe ngosipụta nke ụkpụrụ innervation (dịka ọmụmaatụ, (Moll et al., 2000)). Agbanyeghị, njupụta nke ụgbọ njem nwere ike ịdịgasị iche na-adabereghị na innervation ma yabụ na ọ gaghị adabara nke ọma maka ebumnuche ndị ahụ.

Dabere na ọmụmụ anụmanụ ole na ole nke na-eji ụzọ nchọta ọkọlọtọ akọwa ntozu ntozu, ụfọdụ na-egosi ọganihu n'ahịrị nke innervation n'ofe ntozu okè (dịka, (Brenhouse et al., 2008; Brummelte na Teuchert-Noodt, 2006; Cunningham et al., 2002; Erickson et al., 2000), ebe ndị ọzọ (Cressman et al., 2010; Rios na Villalobos, 2004) gosi ụkpụrụ U-atụgharị. Anyị ahụla ọganihu ahịrị ahịrị nke innervation nke oyi akwa V glutamate neurons nke medial PFC n'ime isi ihe na-akpata nucleus n'etiti 25, 44, na 100 ụbọchị na oke.Brenhouse et al., 2008). N'ime nyocha nke Cunningham na ndị ọrụ ibe ya (Cunningham et al., 2002), a hụkwara ụkpụrụ innervation linear na njikọ glutamatergic dị n'etiti amygdala na PFC, nke na-aga n'ihu site na ọmụmụ ruo n'oge uto / ntorobịa (ụbọchị 60) na oke. Esemokwu afọ na njikọ synapti bụkwa qualitative nke ọma. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, neurons glutamate kpụrụ axo-dendendritic (36.5%), axo-spinous (7.7%), na axo-somatic synapses (5.8%) na neurons GABAergic, mana 17.3%, 30.8% na 1.9% na akwara ndị na-abụghị GABAergic. Nhazi nke kọntaktị ndị a na-agbaso ụkpụrụ curvilinear n'ogologo afọ.

N'ụzọ dị iche, ụfọdụ ụkpụrụ nke innervation na-egosi usoro ọmụmụ na-abụghị nke linear na trajectory ha. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, PFC medial (ma mpaghara prelimbic na infralimbic) amụma na amygdala basolateral ka kwụsiri ike n'etiti ụbọchị 25 na 45 n'ime oke, mana belata ihe dịka 50% n'etiti 45 na 90 (XNUMX na XNUMX).Cressman et al., 2010). A na-ahụ nchọpụta ndị yiri ya na ụmụ oke. Afferents sitere na dorsalmedial thalamus ruo cortex n'ihu na-abawanye ruo ụbọchị 13, na-esote mbelata 67% n'ime izu nke atọ nke ndụ, mgbe ha ji nke nta nke nta na-abawanye ruo n'oge uto wee guzosie ike (Rios na Villalobos, 2004). Ejikọtara usoro izizi nke innervation nke mbụ na nhazi ọrụ nke neurons oyi akwa III, na-atụ aro na ntinye glutamate na-ebugharị synaptogenesis. Dopamine neurons na-agbaso ụkpụrụ atụ nke innervation na primate cortex (mpaghara 4, 9, 46): dopaminergic axon na oyi akwa III mụbara okpukpu atọ tupu ọnwa 5-7 dị afọ, na-enweghị mgbanwe dị mma na ọkwa 1 na V.Erickson et al., 1998). Ụdị varicosities akpọrọ aha na-aga n'ihu na-abawanye, na-eru n'ogo kachasị elu (n'ime okpukpu isii karịa nke obere enwe) n'ime anụmanụ 2-3 afọ (oge uto) tupu ọ daa na ọkwa okenye kwụsiri ike (na-eto eto).Rosenberg na Lewis, 1995; Woo et al., 1997). Gerbils na-egosipụta ụkpụrụ yiri nke ahụ. Dopamine innervation n'ime amygdala na-abawanye izu atọ mbụ na ndụ na gerbils, tupu ntakịrị mbelata nke njupụta n'oge ntorobịa nke na-eme ka ọ kwụsie ike ruo n'oge okenye.Brummelte na Teuchert-Noodt, 2006). Ya mere, o yikarịrị (ma ọ bụchaghị ekpuchiri ya nke ọma na nyocha a) na sistemụ neurotransmitter ndị ọzọ na-egosi mgbanwe yiri nke ahụ na usoro innervation.

N'oge a, amabeghị ihe kpatara usoro innervation dị iche iche (dịka, linear versos inverted U-shaped) ji eme n'ígwé cortical dị iche iche (Nyocha 2). Enwere ike nke mbụ dabere na nlele nke afọ, ebe nkwụsị dị egwu nwere ike ịdị na-akọwapụtaghị nke ọma. Nke abụọ ekwe omume dabeere na ọdịdị / ọrụ nke mpaghara na-innervated. Anyị ebulitela okwu a na mbụ n'ihe gbasara ndị na-anabata dopamine (Teicher et al., 1995) na ndị ọzọ maka innervation (Erickson et al., 1998). Kpọmkwem, mpaghara dị iche iche na-etinye aka na ọrụ ndị na-achọ mmelite mgbe niile nwere ike irite uru site na mmụba linear nke na-eme n'oge ndụ (tupu oge uto). N'ụzọ dị iche, mpaghara ndị na-etinye aka na mmụta nke ọrụ ogologo ndụ, dị ka àgwà, na-erite uru site na nhazigharị nke jikọtara ya na ịkwachaa. Ihe nke atọ nwere ike ime bụ na innervation na-egosi ụkpụrụ afọ kpọmkwem na nzukọ laminar, na oyi akwa III na cortex na-egosipụta ọdịdị U-atụgharị, na omimi na elu elu na-egosipụta usoro na-aga n'ihu. Ejikọtara ọnụ, njikọta pụrụ iche dị n'ime ime na nke dịpụrụ adịpụ na-enyere aka n'ịkpụgharị sekit neuronal n'oge uto (Benes, 2009).

 

Nyocha 2

a) Eserese nke cortical lamination na vetikal cross-ngalaba nke Santiago Ramon y Cajal na-eso Nissl (aka ekpe, n'etiti) n'ime okenye yana ntụpọ Golgi (n'aka nri) n'ime nwa ọhụrụ dị 1½ ọnwa. B) ụkpụrụ nke mgbanwe synapti na-eme n'oge mgbanwe ...

4.1. Iji ike eme ihe

Mgbanwe ọdịdị ọdịdị nke akọwara n'elu na-ebutekarị mgbanwe arụ ọrụ n'ime ụbụrụ. Ọmụmụ ihe izizi gbasara mgbanwe ọrụ ejirila PET imaging nke glucose mee ka eserese ike ojiji n'ime nhazi akụkụ (nke a na-emepe emepe).Chugani, 1998; Feinberg, 1988). Iji glucose eme ihe n'ime mmadụ na-erute ọkwa okenye site na afọ abụọ nke ndụ.Chugani et al., 1987) ma na-ebili na 4-5 afọ ma na-edobe ala dị larịị ruo afọ 10 tupu ịkwachaa site ~ 50% site na 16-18 afọ (Chugani, 1998). A na-egosipụta mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa metụtara glucose metabolism, dịka, gene acyl coA dehydrogenase (ACADSB), n'ogo dị elu n'oge uto, n'agbanyeghị na amabeghị ọrụ ọrụ ha n'oge a.Harris et al., 2009).

Ihe nrịbama ndị ọzọ nke ọrụ ụbụrụ na-enyocha metabolism nke ụbụrụ, dị ka n-acetylaspartate (NAA; akara nke neurons na usoro), phosphocreatine (PCr; ike ike), na membrane phospholipid metabolism (ya na ndị na-eme sPME na sPDE) ejirila magnetik enyocha ya. resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) iji nye ndepụta mmepe na-adịghị emerụ ahụ. A na-akọwa mgbanwe na akara ndị a na mpekere axial nke ụbụrụ n'ofe nwoke na nwanyị 6-9.5, 9.5-12, na 12-18 afọ na n = 106 isiokwu (Goldstein et al., 2009). Ntụnyere n'etiti 6-9.5 afọ na 12-18 afọ egosighi ihe dị iche na NAA, nke na-egosi na ọ dịghị akara neuronal mgbanwe. Nlebanya a dị iche na mfu neuronal nke amaara nke ọma site na nha ozugbo na anụ ahụ nwụrụ anwụ (dịka ọmụmaatụ, Huttenlocher, 1979). Otú ọ dị, NAA na-enye acetate maka olidgodendrocytes bụ ndị na-ahụ maka mmepụta myelin. Ya mere, ọ dịghị mgbanwe ọ bụla na NAA n'ofe mmepe ntorobịa nwere ike igosi nguzozi n'etiti ọnwụ neuronal na ụbara myelination. PCr belatara n'ime ndị ntorobịa, mana ọkwa dị elu na pasent isi isi awọ na oke sPME/sPDE, nke na-egosipụta mgbanwe mgbanwe akpụkpọ ahụ phospholipid, dị elu. PCr na pasent isi awọ jikọtara ya na afọ, mana NAA, sPME, sPDE, na sPME/sPDE adịghị. Ọ bụ ezie na mgbanwe ụfọdụ nwere ike ịgbaghara site na ijikọta nwoke na nwanyị, data ndị a na-egosi na MRSI adịghị egosi mgbanwe mgbanwe metabolic dị mkpa nke afọ.

4.2 Njikọ ọrụ dị ka akọwapụtara na MRI

Njikọ ọrụ bụ ụzọ ọzọ a na-eji egosi mmekọrịta dị n'etiti oge n'etiti mpaghara ịgbalite n'oge ọnọdụ ezumike ma ọ bụ n'oge ọrụ fMRI.Fair et al., 2008; Supekar et al., 2009; Thomason et al., 2009; Zuo et al., 2010). A na-akpọkwa maapụ nke njikọta ọrụ dị ka njikọ (Biswal et al., 2010), yana ngwa fMRI na-anọchite anya ngwa mpaghara a na nso nso a.Lichtman na Sanes, 2008). Ụzọ a na-enye ụfọdụ nghọta na mmepe ụbụrụ nke ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma, n'agbanyeghị na ọ bụ nanị site na ụfọdụ nleba anya na a na-ahụ 'njikọ ọrụ' n'ebe ndị na-adịghị na ezi njikọ anụ ahụ.Mmanụ a etụ et al., 2009; Koch et al., 2002). fMRI steeti izu ike gbadoro ụkwụ na nlebanya na nnukwu njupụta na-enweghi oke obere ugboro (<0.1 Hz) na-eme (Biswal et al., 2010). Ụzọ iji ghọta njikọta ọrụ gụnyere mkpụrụ dabere (ebe a na-eji aka achọpụta ebe mmalite iji chọpụta ebe mmalite), nyocha akụrụngwa onwe ya (ICA), na nyocha ngalaba ugboro ugboro. Mmepe na-arụ ọrụ nke sistemu ụbụrụ dị iche iche gụnyere nchikota nke mbelata njikọ dị mkpụmkpụ (ya bụ, nkewa) na ịba ụba njikọ ogologo ogologo (ya bụ, njikọta)Fair et al., 2007; Stevens et al., 2009). N'ikwu ya n'ụzọ ọzọ, mmepe na-esi na mpaghara gaa na netwọk kesawanye ka mpaghara dị iche iche na-ejikọta ọnụ (Fair et al., 2009). Njikọ njikọ a abụghị mmekọrịta, kama nke ahụ, mpaghara nke ọ bụla na-ejikọta ya wee jikọta (Supekar et al., 2010).

Ọmụmụ njikọ njikọta ọrụ nke fMRI izu ike na-egosi na “netwọk ndabara” dị na ụbụrụ mgbe ọ naghị arụ ọrụ nke ọma ozi. Netwọk ndabara gụnyere cortex cingulate dị n'azụ, mPFC, lobes medial temporal, na gyrus angular. Ihe owuwu ndị a na-egosipụta ngbanwe, mgbagharị ugboro ole dị ala (0.1 Hz) mgbe onye ahụ nọ jụụ, ọnọdụ izu ike. Ka ụbụrụ na-esiwanye ike n'etiti mpaghara n'etiti nwata na oge uto (Fair et al., 2008), ụbara njikọta n'ime netwọk ndabara na-eme n'oge mgbanwe a (n'etiti 9-12 afọ; Broyd et al., 2009). Netwọk ndabara ka echepụtala ka ọ rụọ ọrụ na imepụta ihe, ebe mbelata n'ime netwọk ndabara ejirila schizophrenia na autism.

Otú ọ dị, netwọk ndị ọzọ na-arụ ọrụ dị na ụbụrụ. N'ime ọmụmụ ihe atụnyere ndị na-eto eto (pụtara afọ 12.5 ± 0.51 [SD] afọ) na ndị na-eto eto (22.2 ± 1.67 [SD] afọ) n'ime otu nwoke na nwanyị agwakọta, 13 netwọk ọrụ na-arụ ọrụ bụ ndị a chọpụtara (Jolles et al., 2010). N'ime netwọk ndị a, asatọ gosipụtara mmụba dị n'etiti mpaghara cortical n'oge uto, abụọ egosighi ihe dị iche na ọrụ, na atọ jikọtara ya na isi ọrụ visual ma ọ bụ sensorimotor (ie, sensorimotor, visual system, na ventral stream networks) ma gosipụta obere ọrụ n'oge uto. karịa ịbụ nwata. Nchọpụta netwọkụ ndị a ga-emezi nyocha n'ọdịnihu maka ihe kpatara ha ji egosipụta mgbanwe ndị metụtara afọ.

5.1. Mmepe na-arụ ọrụ nke sekit mmetụta

Mmepe na-arụ ọrụ nke sekit na usoro na ụbụrụ dị mgbagwoju anya, na-enwe ọtụtụ ihe na-akpụ akpụ iji jikọta ọnụ. Dịka ụzọ isi ruo sekit mmepe, anyị na-enye nkọwa ndị a ka ha na-emetụta ma mmetụta na ụgwọ ọrụ n'oge oge ntorobịa. Ụzọ ndị a adịghị agụnye ọmụmụ ihe na-enweghị atụ na nke dị mkpa nke na-enyocha mgbanwe omume na ọgwụ na-eme n'oge uto, ma na-elekwasị anya na ọmụmụ ndị nwere mmekọrịta neuroanatomical na mgbọrọgwụ ha.

Ọtụtụ omume na mkpali mmadụ na-ebilite site na mkpakọrịta ndị enwetara mbụ n'etiti ihe mkpali na-akwụghachi ụgwọ ma ọ bụ nke na-adịghị mma na ọnọdụ ha na-eme (Cardinal et al., 2002). Mkpakọrịta ndị a siri ike, mmụta na-akwalite omume anyị ugbu a na ọdịnihu (Cardinal et al., 2002) ma mee site na usoro nhazi nke Pavlovian (Rosenkranz et al., 2003). A na-ahazi ozi gbasara gburugburu ebe obibi na mmetụta n'ime amygdala basolateral (BLA) (Grace na Rosenkranz, 2002), nke na-etolite mkpakọrịta siri ike n'etiti ihe mkpali na-ebu amụma na ọ ga-eme ihe na-agụ agụụ ma ọ bụ nke na-adịghị mma, ma na-emepụta "mmetụta" n'ime BLA (Cardinal et al., 2002; Laviolette et al., 2005; Schoenbaum, 2004; Lee et al., 2003). Agbanyeghị, ịzaghachi ihe mkpali enyere kwesịrị ịkọwapụta na dabara adaba n'ihe gbasara ọnọdụ, mkpa mmetụta uche, ma ọ bụ nlebara anya dịka ọ metụtara nhọrọ (Paus et al., 1996). Usoro a na-eme na PFC (Cardinal et al., 2003; Rebec na Sun, 2005; Schoenbaum, 2004; Ventura et al., 2007). Noradrenergic na ndị na-anabata dopaminergic na PFC na-edozi usoro nlebara anya, omume na mmetụta site na ime ka njikọ netwọk dị n'etiti neurons na ntinye aka na-ekekọrịta (Arnsten, 2009). N'ime mPFC, a na-ahazi salience nke ozi iji hazie nlebara anya ahọpụtara.

Ya mere, a na-ebufe ozi sitere na BLA na mPFC site na amụma glutamatergic.Bechara et al., 1999; Laviolette et al., 2005; McDonald na Pearson, 1989), ebe a na-edozi ya maka salience (Schultz, 1998) na njehie ndị dị mkpa maka ịkọ ihe ga-eme n'ọdịnihu (Falkenstein et al., 2000; Ahịa, 1999). N'ihi ya, ihe mkpali ndị na-ebu amụma ihe ga-esi na ya pụta nwere ike ịzaghachi ya n'ụzọ dabara adaba nke ọma (Pezze et al., 2003). A na-arụ ọrụ a site na akara dopaminergic na mPFC (Jackson na Moghaddam, 2004), nke na-etinye ozi agbakwunyere nke salience na ihe ọhụrụ na ozi mmetụta uche (Cardinal et al., 2002; Milad na Quirk, 2002) imetụta ihe mgbaru ọsọ na-eduzi, omume mkpali. MPFC na-eziga ozi a na nucleus accumbens ozugbo (Goto na Grace, 2005; Voorn et al., 2004), ma ọ bụ na-apụtaghị ìhè site na amygdala. Na-esote, ọrụ nsonaazụ n'ime mPFC, ozugbo ma ọ bụ na-apụtaghị ìhè, na-emetụta omume mkpali na nucleus accumbens.

Atụpụtala nhazi na-eto eto n'etiti amygdala na PFC iji mee ka ọ pụta ìhè na-egbu oge nke ọrịa na-emetụta ruo n'oge uto (Ernst et al., 2006). N'ime ụdị triadic nke Ernst na ndị ọrụ ibe ha tụrụ aroErnst et al., 2006), sistemu ịzere ihe metụtara amygdala na-eme ka omume PFC na-etobeghị enyocha ya. Dị ka ihe nlereanya a si dị, nucleus accumbens na-emezi ike nke njikọ dị n'etiti agụụ na ime ihe ike (aversive conditioning).Horvitz, 2002). Ozizi a bụ otu n'ime ole na ole na-adịghị ahụkebe nke na-agụnye ihe a maara banyere neurobiology nke ịda mbà n'obi n'ime usoro mmepe. Otú ọ dị, ozizi ahụ na-egosi na ụmụaka na ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma ga-esi na ịda mbà n'obi ha pụta site na ntozu oke cortical na njikọta, nke na-abụghị ikpe.Andersen na Teicher, 2004; 2008).

Anyị enyochala mgbanwe mmepe n'oge na-adịbeghị anya n'oge ntorobịa nke nwere ike ịbawanye ike ịda mbà n'obi (Andersen na Teicher, 2008). Na nkenke, ụmụaka nwere ọtụtụ ọrụ karịa ndị okenye na amygdala na nzaghachi maka mkpali mmetụta uche (Killgore et al., 2001), nke na-akawanye njọ na ụmụaka na ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma nwere nsogbu nchekasị nke ọha mmadụ (Beesdo et al., 2009). Otú ọ dị, nucleus accumbens na-etinyekwu aka na nhazi nke agụụ na mkpali na-adịghị mma n'oge uto kama na amygala (Ernst et al., 2005). Mbanye nke PFC na nzaghachi nye mkpali mmetụta uche anaghị eme ruo mgbe ọ bụ okenye (Killgore et al., 2001). Kpọmkwem, nke a dabara na nnwale traktị nke na-egosi mmepe mmepe nke BLA ruo PFC n'oge uto (Cunningham et al., 2002), mana nke kachasị mkpa, ọnụ ọgụgụ kasị elu na ntinye PFC na ntinye BLA n'oge uto (Cressman et al., 2010). Ọnụ, ịba ụba njikọ anatomical nwere ike inye ihe ndabere maka nhụpụta nke mgbaàmà ịda mbà n'obi na igbu oge (na-eto eto) nke na-egosipụta ọnọdụ ntozu oke a ka nchịkwa nchịkwa na-emetụta mmetụta na-etolite (ma ọ bụ na-etolite).

5.2. Mmepe arụmọrụ nke sekit ụgwọ ọrụ

Ọkachamara MRI na ihe ọmụmụ electrophysiologic na-egosipụta ọrụ pụrụ iche nke nkewa n'ime cortex n'ihu na nhazi ụgwọ ọrụ. The mPFC (Broadman mpaghara [BA] 10/12/32 na gụnyere anterior cingulate cortex; BA 24) na-anabata nsonaazụ nke ụgwọ ọrụ: ọ na-arụ ọrụ ma ọ bụrụ na a na-atụ anya ụgwọ ọrụ na-anata na gbanyụọ mgbe enwetaghị (Knutson et al., 2003; Schulz et al., 2004). The orbital frontal cortex (OFC) na-akọwapụta nsonaazụ ndị a na-atụ anya ya na atụmatụ mkpali dabere na ụgwọ ọrụ nwere ike. Ndị OFC na-arụ ọrụ dị mkpa n'ịmụta mgbanwe na nkwado na-egbu oge (Dalley et al., 2004) site na njikọ ya na mpaghara sensory, limbic, frontal na subcortical. A na-ekewa OFC na-arụ ọrụ yana akụkụ etiti na-aza nke ọma iji kwụọ uru ụgwọ ọrụ, ebe akụkụ akụkụ ahụ na-egbochi usoro metụtara ụgwọ ọrụ gara aga.Elliott et al., 2000; Elliott et al., 2003; London et al., 2000).

Accumbens (mpaghara ventral striatal) na-anabata saliency (Ernst et al., 2004), valence (agụụ ma ọ bụ aversive) (Jensen et al., 2003) na amụma amụma nke ụgwọ ọrụ (ụgwọ ọrụ a na-atụghị anya ya na-arụ ọrụ karịa ụgwọ ọrụ amụma)Berns et al., 2001; Elliott et al., 2000)), ma ọ bụghị akụkụ moto (Zink et al., 2004). N'oge uto, accumbens na-anabata ihe karịrị OFC iji kwụọ ụgwọ (Galvan et al., 2005). Ejikọtara ọnụ, data ndị a na-atụ aro na accumbens na-eto eto na-eme mgbanwe na nhazi ụgwọ ọrụ (Galvan, 2010).

Otú ọ dị, ihe àmà nke otú usoro cortical na subcortical si anabata ụgwọ ọrụ mkpali na-egosi na cortex na-arụ ọrụ ọbụna karị na mgbanwe ndị ntorobịa na nhazi ụgwọ ọrụ. Ọmụmụ anụmanụ egosila na ngbanwe nhazi ụgwọ ọrụ n'oge uto site na ịkwachaa na ike ilekwasị anya na netwọk cortical ka netwọk ahụ na-eto eto ma ghọọ ndị okenye.Brenhouse et al., 2008; Crews et al., 2007). Ọmụmụ fMRI nke ụlọ ọgwụ na-atụ aro na ma ventral striatum na mPFC na-arụ ọrụ iji kwụọ ụgwọ mkpali n'oge uto (Bjork et al., 2004). Tupu mgbanwe a, ọrụ BOLD metụtara ụgwọ ọrụ na-emepụta ihe na-agbasawanye ma na-arụ ọrụ nke ọma nke mpaghara ihu na ụmụaka karịa ndị okenye (Durston et al., 2003). Agbanyeghị, ụmụaka na-egosipụta nkwalite dị ukwuu na ventral striatum (accumbens) (Ernst et al., 2005; Galvan et al., 2006). Dị ka anyị maara ntakịrị usoro maka mmepe ụgwọ ọrụ n'ime mmadụ, anyị ga-ebute nyocha nke izizi maka nghọta ka ukwuu.

A na-egbu oge ntozu nke mPFC n'ọtụtụ mpaghara ụbụrụ ndị ọzọ (Andersen et al., 2000; Huttenlocher, 1979) wee rute njupụta synapti kacha nso na okenye (Benes et al., 2000). Mmụba ome nke neurons dopamine (Benes et al., 1996; Kalsbeek et al., 1988; Verney et al., 1982), njupụta nnabata (Andersen et al., 2000; Leslie et al., 1991), na ọrụ sistemụ ozi nke abụọ (Andersen, 2002) mebie na mbanye dopaminergic kwalitere na mPFC n'oge uto. Nchọpụta ndị na-adịbeghị anya gosikwara mmụba metụtara afọ na ntinye D1 nke mkpụrụ ndụ spiking na-adịghị ngwa ngwa na mPFC, nke na-eme mgbe ntozu okè (Tseng et al., 2006), na ọnụ ọgụgụ kasị elu na ọnụọgụ ọkụ nke VTA dopaminergic neurons n'otu afọ a (McCutcheon na Marinelli, 2009). Nkwuwapụta n'elu nke ndị na-anabata D1 na glutamatergic pụta na accumbens na-arị elu n'oge uto n'otu n'otu na omume ịchọ ọgwụ.Badanich et al., 2006; Brenhouse et al., 2008). Ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị nnabata a etinyela aka na nlọghachi azụ ọgwụ, ya mere nkwuwa okwu ya n'oge uto bụ ihe kwesịrị ịrịba ama (Kalivas, 2005). Mgbanwe ndị a na nhazi ụgwọ ọrụ cortical nwekwara ike imetụta nzaghachi subcortical na psychostimulants.

N'ụzọ dị iche, ọkwa basal nke extracellular dopamine na nzaghachi dopaminergic maka ihe na-akpali akpali adịghị agbanwe nke ọma n'etiti ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma na ndị okenye na accumbens.Frantz et al., 2007) ma ọ bụ mPFC (Jezierski et al., 2007). Agbanyeghị, oke dị n'etiti cortical:accumbens ngosipụta nke mkpụrụ ndụ mmalite mmalite ozugbo c-fos na nzaghachi na-akpali akpali na-abawanye n'etiti oge uto na okenye (Andersen et al., 2001). Ọzọkwa, amphetamine na-emepụta subcortical> cortical activation patterns of c-fos na ụmụaka.Andersen et al., 2001), ma cortical > subcortical ịgbalite na ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma (Cao et al., 2007). N'ịchịkọta ọnụ, data ndị a na-egosi na ndị na-eto eto dị iche na ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma, bụ ndị toro eto karịa, na nzaghachi ha na-akpali akpali na subcortically. N'ikwu ya n'ụzọ ọzọ, o yikarịrị ka iji ihe eme ihe na-ebili nke ukwuu n'oge uto na-esite na mmetụta kpọmkwem ma ọ bụ na-apụtaghị ìhè nke usoro cortical na ọrụ subcortical.

5.3. Ọrụ mmepe nke cognition

Usoro nnwale dị ka Stroop, Simon, Flanker, Go/No-Go, na ọrụ nkwụsị-ịkwalite chọrọ mbelata omume akpaka karịa iji rụọ obere akpaaka. Usoro nlebara anya, nkwụsị nzaghachi, na esemokwu na nleba anya njehie bụ usoro ọgụgụ isi nke na-arụ ọrụ nke njikwa ọgụgụ isi na ịrụ ọrụ nke ọma. Ịrụ ọrụ ndị a niile na-akawanye mma n'oge mmepe niile, mana ọ naghị abịaru nso n'ogo ndị okenye ruo mgbe ọ dịkarịa ala n'oge nwata ma ọ bụ n'oge uto (Bunge et al., 2002; Casey et al., 1997; Davidson et al., 2006; Luna na Sweeney, 2004; Rubia et al., 2000). Dị ka ọ dị na ebe nchekwa na-arụ ọrụ, ikike ịchịkwa onwe ụmụaka nwere ike ịkabiga ya ngwa ngwa site n'ịbawanye mkpa ọrụ. N'ime ndị okenye, nhazi onwe onye na-adabere na mpaghara cortical sara mbara dị ka mpaghara moto mgbakwunye, oghere ihu ihu, cortex cingulate cortex, dorsolateral PFC, ventralPFC/lateral orbitofrontal cortex, yana mpaghara oge, na mpaghara parietal niile nwere njikọ na striatum na subcortex (Leung et al., 2000; Marsh et al., 2007).

Ịzaghachi nke ọma maka mkpali gburugburu ebe obibi chọrọ nlebara anya nhọrọ na ntụzịaka mkpali, yana nkwụsị nke omume ndị a na-achọghịzi ma ọ bụ ndị na-ekwesịghị ekwesị. A na-atụ nhịahụ a na nnwale site na mgbochi nzaghachi, nke gụnyere usoro atọ jikọrọ ọnụ, dịka Barkely tụrụ aro (Barkley, 1997): 1) igbochi nzaghachi mbụ nke nwere ike, 2) ịkwụsị nzaghachi na-aga n'ihu ma ọ bụ ịzaghachi na-egbu oge, na 3) igbochi nnyonye anya ma ọ bụ ihe ndọpụ uche n'oge oge igbu oge. Basal ganglia na PFC na-etinye aka na usoro ndị a (Casey et al., 2008). N'ozuzu, ebe basal ganglia na-achịkwa mgbochi nke omume na-ekwesịghị ekwesị (Mink, 1996), PFC na-eme ihe iji gbochie nnyonye anya na ozi dị mkpa site na ozi asọmpi (Miller na Cohen, 2001).

N'ụzọ dị iche na nsoro-ịzere, nke na-achọ njirimara salience na-akpali akpali ma na-agbaziri ya nke ukwuu site na imekọ ihe ọnụ nke PFC, striatum, na amygdala (nyochaa (nyocha)Ernst na Fudge, 2009)), mgbochi nzaghachi na-ewe ndị ọrụ sekit nke na-ahazi atụmatụ moto na oge (oge)Deiber et al., 1999). Ọrụ bụ isi nke netwọk fronto-striatal na-enye onwe ya na profaịlụ mmepe dị iche karịa nke mkpali na usoro nlebara anya nhọrọ.

5.4. Mmepe nke mgbochi nzaghachi

Ọ bụ ezie na ndị nọ n'afọ iri na ụma nwere ike ịrụ ọrụ ọgụgụ isi ọkaibe, ikike ime nke a na-aga n'ihu na-aga n'ihu n'oge uto na n'ime oge ntozu, Mmụba nke usoro a n'oge mmepe niile na-egosi na nkwado neurobiological nke cognition na-agbaso usoro ọganihu n'otu aka ahụ. Ụmụntakịrị na-egosi nrụ ọrụ dị elu karịa ndị okenye na mpaghara ihu lobe (Bunge et al., 2002) gụnyere gyrus n'ihu etiti etiti na akụkụ etiti nke gyrus ihu dị elu nke abụọ (Booth et al., 2003). Nke a kwekọrọ n'ọdịiche metụtara afọ na izi ezi na oge mmeghachi omume n'ọrụ aga/agaghị aga n'ofe nwata. N'ụzọ na-akpali mmasị, ọmụmụ ihe nkwonkwo DTI na fMRI nke Stevens na ndị ọrụ ibe mere (Stevens et al., 2009) kọrọ njikọ kpọmkwem n'etiti mgbanwe ndị metụtara afọ na njikọta ọrụ n'etiti frontopolar bilateral, right parietal cortex na caudate ziri ezi, myelination na-abawanye, na ịrụ ọrụ nke ọma na ọrụ Go / No Go. N'ime ọmụmụ DTI ọzọ, mmechi nzaghachi na 7-13 afọ na-ejikọta ya na FA dị elu na MD dị ala na ma gyrus n'ihu nke ọma na cortex moto pre-supportary (Madsen et al., 2010). Usoro mmepe ahịrị ahịrị nke myelination nke a tụlere n'elu kwekọrọ na mmepe ahịrị ahịrị pụtara akara njikwa, n'ihe metụtara ntụgharị ntụgharị U-ụdị mmetụta mmetụta na nhazi ụgwọ ọrụ. Ụmụntakịrị na-egosipụtakwa ike ịrụ ọrụ ka ukwuu karịa ndị okenye na oghere caudate aka ekpe n'oge aga/no-go (Booth et al., 2003) na kwụsị (Rubia et al., 1999) ọrụ. Atụbere basal ganglia ka ọ tinye aka na mgbochi nke omume na-ekwesịghị ekwesị (Casey et al., 2001), na basal ganglia yiri ka ọ toro n'ahịrị site na nwata ruo n'oge.

A tụlere neurobiology bụ isi nke sekit ndị a n'elu ma ọ bụ ka amụbeghị ya n'ime ọnọdụ mmepe. Ọ bụ ezie na enwere ọtụtụ data neuroimaging gbara gburugburu ọrụ mgbochi nzaghachi, enwere obere nyocha nke neurochemistry n'azụ sistemu ndị a (maka nyocha zuru oke, lee Eagle et al., 2008). Otu n'ime nsogbu ndị bụ isi jikọtara na nhazi nhazi nke omume ndị a bụ izu ndị a chọrọ ịzụ ụmụ anụmanụ ka ha rụọ ọrụ ndị a, nke na-egbochi ọmụmụ ha n'oge mmepe. N'iburu mkpa ọ dị na njikwa ọgụgụ isi na mkpali iwu n'oge ntolite ntorobịa ruo n'ịbụ okenye, ngalaba a chọrọ nlebara anya karịa ka ọ natara.

Nkwupụta Nkwupụta Onye Nkwusa: Nke a bụ faịlụ PDF nke ihe odide a na-akwadoghị nke akwadora maka mbipụta. Dịka ọrụ nke ndị ahịa anyị, anyị na-enye nsụgharị mbụ nke ihe odide ahụ. Ihe odide a ga-enwe ngbanwe, nhazi, na nyochaa ihe kpatara ya tupu e bipụ ya na nke ikpeazụ ya. Biko rịba ama na n'oge mmepụta usoro njehie nwere ike ịchọta nke nwere ike imetụta ọdịnaya ahụ, ihe niile gbasara iwu na-emetụta akwụkwọ akụkọ ahụ.

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