Hanyar Striatocortical Dysfunction a cikin Addini da Kiba: Differences da Similarities (2013) Nora Volkow

Dardo Tomasi ^{*, 1} da Nora D. Volkow ^{1, 2}

Hanyoyin fasahar neuroimaging suna fara bayyanar da muhimmiyar haɗuwa a cikin ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa da rikice-rikice na dyscontrol kan halayen sakamako (kamar cuta mai yawa da kiba). Positron emmo tomography (PET) ya nuna rashin ƙarfi mai rikitarwar dopamine (DA) alamar (raguwar masu karɓar D2) a cikin shan kwayoyi da kiba wanda ke da alaƙa da rage yawan ƙwayar glucose mai narkewa a cikin ƙwaƙwalwar medial da ventral prefrontal. Aikace-aikacen magana da ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa (fMRI) ya tattara bayanan rashin aiki na kwakwalwa wanda hakan yana haifar da hanyoyin DA-mai daidaituwa na coci. A cikin wannan bita muna taswirar binciken daga binciken da aka gudanar na kwanan nan wanda ya bambanta kunnawar kwakwalwa a cikin maganin maye / ƙwayar abinci daga waɗanda ke cikin kulawa a cikin cibiyoyin sadarwa na kwakwalwa waɗanda ke da alaƙa da ventral da kuma dorsal striatum. Mun nuna cewa yankuna da aka gaza marasa ƙarfi a cikin jaraba da kuma kiba akai-akai suna fitowa ne a yawan mahaukatan dorsal da ventral striatal. Yankuna na tsaka-tsaki na tsaka-tsaki na tsaka-tsaka da tsaka-tsakin yankuna na gabanin aiki waɗanda ke da alaƙa da tasirin ƙaddara suna nuna babbar illa a cikin kiba da matsalar rashin abinci fiye da na jarabawar miyagun ƙwayoyi, wanda ke nuna yawan ƙazamar yawaitar kiba da matsalar rashin abinci fiye da na jaraba. Wannan ya ba da tabbacin sa hannu cikin yanayin tashin hankali (galibi yana da alaƙa da sakamako da motsawa) da cibiyoyin sadarwar dorsal (waɗanda ke da alaƙa da koyon kara motsawa) a cikin jaraba da kuma kiba amma kuma an gano halaye daban-daban tsakanin waɗannan rikice-rikicen biyu.

Dopaminergic martani ga kwayoyi da abinci

Duk magungunan jaraba suna nuna ikon ƙara DA a cikin striatum, musamman a cikin nucleus accumbens (ventral striatum), wanda ke ƙarƙashin tasirin lada ( Koob, 1992 ). DA neurons waɗanda ke cikin yankin ventral tegmental (VTA) da substantia nigra (SN) a cikin aikin tsakiyar kwakwalwa zuwa striatum ta hanyar hanyoyin mesolimbic da nigrostriatal. Tasirin lada da daidaitawa na magunguna (kuma mai yiwuwa ga abinci ma) da alama galibi yana faruwa ne ta hanyar ƙaruwa na ɗan lokaci da bayyananne a cikin harbin ƙwayoyin DA ( Wise, 2009 ) wanda ke haifar da babban yawan DA wanda ya zama dole don ƙarfafa ƙananan masu karɓar D1 ( Zweifel et al., 2009 ). A cikin mutane, binciken PET ya nuna cewa magunguna da yawa suna ƙara DA a cikin dorsal da ventral striatum kuma waɗannan ƙaruwar suna da alaƙa da tasirin sakamako mai kyau na magungunan [masu ƙarfafawa ( Drevets et al., 2001 ; Volkow et al., 1999 ), nicotine ( Brody et al., 2009 ), barasa ( Boileau et al., 2003 ) da cannabis ( Bossong et al., 2009 )]. Amsoshin dopaminergic suma na iya taka rawa a cikin tasirin abinci mai kyau da kuma ba da gudummawa ga yawan shan abinci da kiba ( Volkow et al., 2011b ). Wasu abinci, musamman waɗanda ke da wadataccen sukari da mai, suna da lada mai ƙarfi kuma suna iya haɓaka cin abinci fiye da kima ( Lenoir et al., 2007 ) saboda kamar magunguna suna ƙara sakin DA mai ƙarfi ( Norgren et al., 2006 ). Bugu da ƙari, abinci zai iya ƙara yawan DA a cikin ventral striatum kawai bisa ga yawan kalori da yake da shi kuma ba tare da la'akari da dandano ba ( de Araujo et al., 2008 ). Duk da cewa ƙungiyoyin lada na abinci sun kasance masu amfani a cikin muhalli inda tushen abinci yake da ƙaranci da/ko kuma ba a iya dogara da shi ba, wannan tsari yanzu ya zama alhaki a cikin al'ummominmu na zamani inda abinci yake da yawa kuma koyaushe yana samuwa.

Sauran masu neurotransmitters fiye da dopamine (cannabinoids, opioids, da serotonin) da kuma hormones na neuropeptide (insulin, leptin, ghrelin, orexin, glucagon kamar peptide, furotin da ya shafi agouti, PYY) an yi su ne a cikin tasirin abinci mai kyau da kuma daidaita cin abinci ( Atkinson, 2008 ; Cason et al., 2010 ; Cota et al., 2006 ). Bugu da ƙari, ƙaruwar DA mai alaƙa da abinci shi kaɗai ba zai iya bayyana bambanci tsakanin cin abinci na yau da kullun da yawan cin abinci mai ƙarfi ba tunda waɗannan ma suna faruwa ne a cikin mutane masu lafiya waɗanda ba sa cin abinci fiye da kima. Saboda haka, game da jaraba, daidaitawar da ke ƙasa na iya shiga cikin asarar iko akan cin abinci. Waɗannan daidaitawar neuro na iya haifar da raguwa a cikin harbin ƙwayoyin DA na tonic, haɓaka harbin ƙwayoyin DA na phasic don mayar da martani ga magunguna ko alamun abinci da rage aikin zartarwa gami da rauni a cikin sarrafa kai ( Grace, 2000 ; Wanat et al., 2009 ).

Haɗin Striatocortical

Bugu da ƙari, alaƙar cortical na ƙarancin dopaminergic na striatal ba abin mamaki ba ne. Nazarin ilimin halittar jiki a cikin birai marasa ɗan adam da kuma a cikin beraye sun nuna cewa cortices na gaba na mota, somatosensory da dorsolateral suna aiki zuwa dorsal striatum ( Künzle, 1975 ; Künzle, 1977 ; Selemon da Goldman-Rakic, 1985 ; Middleton da Strick , 2002 ; Kelly da Strick , 2004 ; Künzle da Akert, 1977 ), da kuma cewa cortices na gaba (ACC) da orbitofrontal (OFC) suna aiki zuwa ventral striatum ( Ilinsky et al., 1985 ; Selemon da Goldman-Rakic, 1985 ; Ferry et al., 2000 ; Haber et al., 2006 ; Powell da Leman, 1976 ; Yeterian da Van Hoesen, 1978 ).

Kwanan nan, Di Martino da abokan aikinsa sun sami damar sake duba waɗannan da'irorin striatocortical ta amfani da taƙaitaccen zaman duba MRI (< mintuna 7) a hutawa a cikin mutane 35 na ɗan adam ( Di Martino et al., 2008 ) kuma sun goyi bayan nazarin meta na nazarin PET da fMRI wanda ya gano haɗin aiki tsakanin sashin dorsal na gaba da insula ( Postuma da Dagher, 2006 ). Haɗin aikin yanayin hutawa (RSFC) yana da fa'ida lokacin nazarin marasa lafiya da ƙarancin aiki saboda ana tattara bayanai a hutawa suna guje wa rikice-rikicen aiki (alamomin ƙarfafa aiki suna buƙatar haɗin gwiwa da kwarin gwiwa na mahalarta), kuma yana da yuwuwar zama alamar cutar cututtukan da ke shafar tsarin DA na kwakwalwa.

Binciken da aka yi kwanan nan sun tsara rashin ƙarfi a cikin haɗin haɓakar aiki duka a cikin jaraba na miyagun ƙwayoyi da kuma kiba. Musamman ƙananan haɗin aiki da aka ruwaito tsakanin dopaminergic midbrain nuclei (VTA da SN) tare da striatum da tare da thalamus (Gu et al., 2010;Tomasi et al., 2010), tsakanin gunawar jini (Kelly et al., 2011), da kuma tsakanin tashin hankali da bawo (Hanlon et al., 2011) a cikin maganin maye. Hakanan an yi bayanin abubuwan haɗin keɓaɓɓu na haɗin gwiwa a cikin masu shaye-shaye na zamantakewar jama'a (Rzepecki-Smith et al., 2010), masu cin zalin opioid (Ma et al., 2010;Liu et al., 2009;Ma et al., 2011;Upadhyay et al., 2010) da kuma abubuwa masu kiba (Nummenmaa et al., 2012;Kullmann et al., 2012;García-García et al., 2012). Gabaɗaya, waɗannan karatun sunyi nuni da cewa haɗin haɓaka na yau da kullun tsakanin yankuna na cortical da subcortical na iya ɗaukar matakan jihohin cututtukan cututtukan ƙwayoyi a cikin jarabawar ƙwayar cuta da kiba. Bude damar zuwa manyan bayanan RSFC wanda aka hada bayanan bayanai daga karatuttukan da yawa sun yi alkawarin kara karfin ilimin kididdigar da hankali don nuna halayyar kwakwalwar mutum (Biswal et al., 2010;Tomasi da Volkow, 2011). Anan mun sake fasalta tsarin RSFC daga tsaran dorsal da ventral striatal tsaba da Di Martino da abokan aiki suka rubuta (Di Martino et al., 2008) a cikin babban samfurin masu koyon lafiya. An tsara ayyukan haɗin gwiwar mahaukatan da aka ƙaddamar da su ta hanyar binciken ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa na baya akan jarabawar abinci / miyagun ƙwayoyi a cikin waɗannan cibiyoyin haɗin gwiwar don tantance abin da ke cikin maye da kuma kiba. Sauran yankuna yankuna masu ban sha'awa (watau dorsal caudate) basu da mahimmanci saboda tsarin haɗin haɗin aikin aikin an haɗa su sosai a cikin ƙungiyar ka'idodin ventral da dorsal RSFC.

An ƙididdige tsarin RSFC ta amfani da manyan bayanai guda uku (Beijing: N=198; Cambridge: N=198; Oulu: N=103) na ma'ajiyar hotunan jama'a "1000 Functional Connectomes Project" ( http://www.nitrc.org/projects/fcon_1000/ ), wanda ya haɗa da jimillar mutane 499 masu lafiya (maza 188 da mata 311; shekaru: shekaru 18-30). Mun yi amfani da hanyar da Di Martino et al. suka bi don taswirar hanyoyin sadarwa na dorsal da ventral striatal. An ɗauki tsarin sarrafa hoto na yau da kullun (sake daidaitawa da daidaita sarari zuwa sararin MNI) tare da fakitin taswirar ƙididdiga (SPM5; Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, London, UK). Bayan haka, an yi amfani da nazarin hulɗar iri-voxel tare da Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization ( Margulies et al., 2007 ; Di Martino et al., 2008 ) don ƙididdige haɗin aiki na yankunan iri na dorsal ( x = ±28 mm, y = 1 mm, z = 3 mm) da ventral ( x = ±9 mm, y = 9 mm, z = -8 mm) (ƙididdigar cubic 0.73ml). Bugu da ƙari, an ƙididdige haɗin aiki na ƙwayar cortex ta gani ta farko ( x = ±6 mm, y = -81 mm, z = 10 mm; calcarine cortex, BA 17) a matsayin hanyar sadarwa ta sarrafawa. An sassauta waɗannan taswirar RSFC ta sararin samaniya (8-mm) kuma an haɗa su a cikin samfurin SPM5 na bambancin hanya ɗaya na voxel, daban-daban don tsaba na dorsal da ventral striatal. An yi la'akari da cewa Voxels masu maki T > 3 (p-value < 0.001, ba a gyara ba) suna da alaƙa sosai da yankunan iri kuma an haɗa su a matsayin wani ɓangare na hanyoyin sadarwa.

Tsarin RSFC na tsaban dorsal striatal ( Hoto na 3 ) ya kasance na biyu kuma ya haɗa da dorsolateral prefrontal (BAs: 6, 8, 9, 44-46), na ƙasa (BA: 47) da na gaba mafi girma (BAs: 8-10), na ɗan lokaci (BAs: 20, 22, 27, 28, 34, 36-38, 41-43), na baya da na sama parietal (BAs: 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 39, 40), occipital (BA: 19), da cingulate (BAs: 23, 24, 32), occipital (BA 19) da limbic (BA: 30) cortices, thalamus, putamen, globus pallidus, caudate, midbrain, pons, da cerebellum. Tsarin RSFC na tsaban ventral striatal shi ma ya kasance na biyu kuma ya haɗa da ventral orbitofrontal (BA: 11), superior frontal (BAs: 8-10), temporal (BAs: 20, 21, 27-29, 34, 36, 38), inferior parietal (BA: 39), da cingulate (BAs: 23-26, 32) da limbic (BA: 30) cortices, thalamus, putamen, globus pallidus, caudate, midbrain, pons, da cerebellum. Waɗannan tsarin ventral da dorsal sun haɗu a cikin ƙananan (BA: 47) da kuma gaban gaba mafi girma (BAs: 9), temporal (BAs: 20, 27, 28, 34, 36, 38), cingulate (BAs: 23, 24, 32) da limbic (BA: 30) cortices, thalamus, putamen, globus pallidus, caudate, midbrain, pons, da cerebellum. Don haka, akwai babban haɗuwa da bambance-bambance tsakanin waɗannan tsarin hanyar sadarwa ta dorsal da ventral waɗanda ke tabbatar da waɗanda suka fito daga Di Martino et al ( Di Martino et al., 2008 ) kuma sun yi daidai da tsarin da aka ruwaito ta hanyar nazarin anatomical ( Haber et al., 2000 ). Tsarin RSFC na babban ɓangaren gani (V1) shi ma ya kasance na biyu kuma ya haɗa da occipital (BAs 17-19), temporal (BA 37), superior parietal (BA 7), auditory (BAs 22 da 42) da premotor (BA 6) cortices da bilateral posterior superior cerebellum ( Hoto na 3 ). Don haka, tsarin haɗin V1 ya kasance ƙarami (girman hanyar sadarwa ta V1 = 16% girman abu mai launin toka) kuma ya ɗan yi karo da hanyar sadarwa ta dorsal striatal (girman abu mai launin toka 6% a BAs 6, 7, 19 da 37) amma ba hanyar sadarwa ta ventral striatal ba.

 

Fig 3

RSFC cibiyoyin sadarwa daga dorsal da ventral striatum

Meta-bincike

A cikin abin da ke biyo baya, mun sake duba nazarin aikin hoton jijiyoyi kan barasa, cocaine, methamphetamine, da marijuana ( Tebur 1 - -4), 4 ), da kuma matsalolin kiba da cin abinci ( Tebur 5 da 6)6 ) waɗanda aka buga tsakanin Janairu 1, 2001 da Disamba 31, 2011; jarabar nicotine ba a haɗa ta ba saboda akwai nazarin fMRI guda biyar kawai kan jarabar nicotine kuma babu wanda ya tantance bambance-bambancen kunna kwakwalwa tsakanin masu shan taba da waɗanda ba sa shan taba. Kalmomin "kunnawa", "haɗi", "dopamine", "cocaine", "marijuana", "cannabis", "methamphetamine", "alcohol", "PET", da "MRI" an haɗa su a cikin binciken wallafe-wallafen da aka yi wa bita a cikin PubMed ( http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ ) don gano nazarin hoton kwakwalwa masu dacewa. Nazarin da aka yi kawai sun ba da rahoton daidaita sararin samaniya na ƙungiyoyin (a Cibiyar Nazarin Jijiyoyi ta Montreal (MNI) ko kuma tsarin nassoshi na Talairach stereotactic) waɗanda ke nuna bambance-bambance masu mahimmanci na kunnawa/haɓaka metabolism tsakanin masu amfani da miyagun ƙwayoyi/masu kiba da masu sarrafawa (P < 0.05, an gyara don kwatantawa da yawa) an haɗa su a cikin binciken.

 

Table 1

Takaitaccen nazarin nazarin maganadisu na aikin magana (wanda aka gudanar a tsakanin 2001 da 2011) kan illolin maye giya akan aikin kwakwalwa da aka hada Figs 4 da kuma Da kuma 5.5. An tsara abubuwan karatu tare da kwasa-kwatancen abubuwa zuwa hudu ...

 

Table 4

Takaitaccen nazarin nazarin maganadisu na Magnetic functional (wanda aka gudanar tsakanin 2001 da 2011) kan tasirin shan taba sigari a kan aikin kwakwalwa da aka hada Figs 4 da kuma Da kuma 5.5. Nazarin an tsara su ta hanyar karfafa abubuwa zuwa manyan rukuni hudu. ...

 

Table 5

Takaitaccen nazarin nazarin maganadisu na maganadisu (wanda aka gudanar tsakanin 2001 da 2012) akan tasirin kiba akan aikin kwakwalwa wanda aka hada dashi Figs 4 da kuma Da kuma 6.6. An tsara abubuwan karatu ta hanyar karfafawa zuwa manyan rukuni biyu. Yawan ...

 

Table 6

Takaitawa game da nazarin tsinkayen sauti na maganadisu (wanda aka gudanar tsakanin 2001 da 2011) kan tasirin ci da rashin cin abinci game da aikin kwakwalwa da aka hada cikin Figs 4 da kuma Da kuma 6.6. Yawan marasa lafiya (S) da abubuwan sarrafawa (C) da abubuwan da suke gudana sune ...

An yi amfani da nazarin meta-based coordinate-analysis don kimanta matakin daidaito tsakanin nazarin. Mun yi amfani da hanyar kimanta yuwuwar kunnawa ( Wager et al., 2004 ) don gina ayyukan yuwuwar ga kowane rukuni da aka ruwaito. Musamman, an mayar da hankali kan yawan Gaussian na 3D (15-mm cikakken faɗi-rabi-matsakaicin) a kan daidaitattun MNI na kowane rukuni wanda ya ba da rahoton manyan bambance-bambancen kunnawa dangane da sarrafawa ga masu amfani da miyagun ƙwayoyi, mutanen da ke da kiba da marasa lafiya da ke fama da matsalar cin abinci, ko sun kasance ƙaruwa ko raguwa. An yi amfani da ANOVA na hanya ɗaya ta SPM5 don nazarin mahimmancin ƙididdiga na taswirar yuwuwar (ƙudurin isotropic 3-mm) wanda ya dace da nazarin 44 akan jarabar miyagun ƙwayoyi ( Tebur 1 - -4),4 ), da kuma nazarin 13 akan kiba da matsalolin cin abinci ( Tebur 5 da 6).6 ). Binciken meta ya nuna cewa cortices na gaba da na tsakiya suna nuna rashin daidaituwar kunnawa a cikin nazarin neuroimaging akan jarabar miyagun ƙwayoyi, kuma cewa putamen/posterior insula, hippocampus, superior prefrontal cortex (PFC), tsakiya da ƙananan temporal cortices da cerebellum akai-akai suna nuna rashin daidaituwar kunnawa a cikin nazarin kiba da rashin daidaituwar cin abinci (P _FWE < 0.05, an gyara don kwatancen da yawa a cikin kwakwalwa gaba ɗaya ta amfani da ka'idar filin bazuwar tare da gyara kuskuren iyali; Hoto na 4 ; Tebur na 7 ). Wannan nazarin meta kuma ya nuna cewa yuwuwar samun rashin daidaituwar kunnawa a cikin putamen/posterior insula, hippocampus, parahippocampus da temporal cortices yawanci ya fi girma ga nazarin kan kiba da rashin daidaituwar cin abinci fiye da na nazarin kan jarabar miyagun ƙwayoyi (P _FWE < 0.05; Hoto na 4 ; Tebur na 7 ). A cikin ACC (BA 24 da 32), PFC (BA 8), putamen/posterior insula, hippocampus (BA 20), cerebellum, tsakiyar da mafi girma temporal (BAs 21, 41 da 42) da supramarginal gyri ƙarfin haɗin aiki ya fi ƙarfi ga dorsal fiye da na ventral striatum kuma a cikin anterior medial frontal cortex (BAs 10 da 11) ya fi ƙarfi ga ventral fiye da na dorsal striatum (P _FWE < 0.05; Tebur 7 ).

 

Fig 4

Analysisididdigar tushen-meta na nazari game da nazarin neuroimaging akan kwayar kwayoyi, kiba da raunin cin abinci

 

Table 7

Analysisididdigar tushen-meta meta na nazari game da nazarin neuroimaging game da shan kwayoyi, kiba da raunin cin abinci wanda aka buga tsakanin 2001 da 2011 (Tables 2-7). MNI tsarawa (x, y, z) da mahimmancin ƙididdiga (T-score) don gungu waɗanda suka nuna mahimmancin ...

barasa

A cikin masu shan giya, nazarin bayan mutuwa da nazarin hoton kwakwalwa sun ba da rahoton raguwa a cikin D2R a cikin striatum, gami da NAc ( Freund da Ballinger, 1989 ). Nazarin fMRI akan masu shan giya sun ba da rahoton martani mara kyau ga amsawar cue-reactivity, ƙwaƙwalwar aiki, hanawa, da yanayin motsin rai a cikin yankunan kwakwalwa na cortical da subcortical ( Tebur 1 ). A lokacin amsawar cue-reactivity ko tare da fallasa ga barasa, sama da kashi 67% na ƙungiyoyin kunnawa waɗanda suka bambanta masu shan giya daga sarrafawa an haɗa su a cikin hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal ( Hoto na 5 ). Misali, ethanol na jijiyoyi ya ƙara kunnawa a cikin ventral striatum da sauran yankunan limbic a cikin masu shan giya na zamantakewa amma ba a cikin masu shan giya mai yawa ba ( Gilman et al., 2012 ) da alamun ɗanɗanon barasa da aka kunna PFC, striatum da midbrain a cikin masu shan giya mai yawa ( Filbey et al., 2008 ). Shan giya ya ƙara kunna fMRI a cikin dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) da anterior thalamus lokacin da masu shan giya suka fallasa alamun barasa ( George et al., 2001 ). Masu shan giya sun kuma nuna mafi girman kunnawar fMRI fiye da sarrafawa a cikin putamen, ACC da medial PFC da raguwa a cikin ventral striatum da PFC lokacin da suke kallon alamun barasa/ikon sarrafawa ( Grüsser et al., 2004 ; Vollstädt-Klein et al., 2010b ). Rukunin da ke ba da rahoton rashin daidaituwar kunnawa da ke da alaƙa da barasa yayin ayyukan amsawar alama sun fi yawa a cikin hanyar sadarwa ta "haɗaka" da aka ayyana ta hanyar haɗuwar hanyoyin sadarwa na dorsal da ventral ( Hoto na 3 , magenta; 21% na girman abu mai launin toka) fiye da yankunan da aka haɗa su da V1, ko da kuwa sun haɗu (rawaya) ko a'a (kore) tare da hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal. Waɗannan bayanai sun nuna cewa fallasa ga alamun da ke da alaƙa da barasa suna shiga cikin haɗuwar hanyoyin sadarwa na ventral da dorsal bisa ga binciken PET wanda ke nuna ƙarancin a cikin ventral da dorsal striatal D2R da kuma a cikin siginar DA a cikin masu shan giya ( Volkow et al., 2007 ).

 

Fig 5

Rearancin cungiyoyi na mahaukaci ta kowace hanyar sadarwa: ictionarin Magunguna

Cibiyoyin sadarwa na striatal sun kuma haɗa da babban ɓangare na binciken da suka shafi barasa don ayyukan ƙwaƙwalwar aiki da adana ƙwaƙwalwa. Don tantance tasirin maye a cikin barasa akan aikin fahimi, Gundersen et al. sun kimanta kunna fMRI yayin ƙwaƙwalwar aiki ta n-back lokacin da mutane suka sha barasa idan aka kwatanta da lokacin da suka sha abin sha mai laushi. Sun gano cewa shan barasa mai tsanani ya rage kunnawa a cikin dorsal ACC da cerebellum, kuma waɗannan raguwar sun bambanta da nauyin fahimi da yawan barasa a cikin jini ( Gundersen et al., 2008 ). Masu shan giya da aka tantance tare da aikin ƙwaƙwalwar aiki sun nuna raunin lateralization na kunna fMRI a cikin yankunan parahippocampal, suna tallafawa hasashen cewa yankin dama yana da rauni ga lalacewar da ta shafi barasa fiye da na hagu ( Yoon et al., 2009 ), da kuma ƙaruwar kunna ACC idan aka kwatanta da sarrafawa ( Vollstädt-Klein et al., 2010a ). Fiye da kashi 90% na binciken kunnawa da ya shafi barasa sun faru ne a cikin hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal. Waɗannan binciken suna goyon bayan alaƙa tsakanin rashin daidaituwar kunnawa yayin ƙwaƙwalwar aiki da rashin daidaituwar striatal a cikin masu shan giya.

Cibiyoyin sadarwa na striatal sun kuma haɗa da wani babban ɓangare na binciken da ya shafi barasa a cikin nazarin kan motsin rai da kuma kula da hana shaye-shaye. A lokacin da ake sa ran samun kuɗi, masu shan giya sun nuna ƙarancin kunnawa a cikin ventral striatum fiye da sarrafawa amma sun nuna mafi girman kunnawa a lokacin fallasa barasa-cue, wanda ke da alaƙa da sha'awar barasa a cikin masu shan giya amma ba a cikin sarrafawa ba ( Wrase et al., 2007 ). Nazarin kan matasa masu haɗarin shan giya (yaran masu shan giya, ko COA) sun ba da rahoton mafi girman kunnawa a cikin PFC na dorsomedial da ƙarancin kunnawa a cikin ventral striatum da amygdala ga waɗanda ke cikin haɗarin shan giya fiye da masu sarrafa juriya ga barasa ( Heitzeg et al., 2008 ). Nazarin kan impulsivity ya ba da rahoton mafi girman kunnawa fMRI a cikin DLPFC da ACC yayin gwajin tsoma baki na Stroop ( Silveli et al., 2011 ), da ƙarancin kashewa a cikin ventral striatum, ventral PFC, da OFC yayin aikin hana shaye-shaye ( Heitzeg et al., 2010 ) ga COA fiye da matasa masu sarrafawa. Yawan binciken da aka gudanar a cikin hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal a lokacin waɗannan nazarin (> 83%) ya nuna cewa raunin barasa da raunin da ke tattare da shi a cikin ƙarfin hanawa da hanyoyin sarrafawa suna da alaƙa da rashin aikin striatal. Hakika, mun rubuta mafi girma fiye da yadda aka saba samun D2R a cikin dorsal da ventral striatum wanda ke da alaƙa da aiki na yau da kullun a cikin yankunan kwakwalwa na prefrontal (OFC, ACC, DLPFC) da anterior insula a cikin COA waɗanda ba masu shan giya ba ne a lokacin da suka girma ( Hoto na 2 ) ( Volkow et al., 2006 ). Mun yi hasashen cewa ƙaruwar striatal a cikin D2R ya ba su damar ci gaba da aiki na yau da kullun a cikin sassan kwakwalwa na prefrontal, yana kare su daga shan barasa.

Cocaine

Cibiyoyin sadarwa na striatal sun kama kashi 83% na ƙungiyoyin kunnawa marasa kyau a cikin abubuwan da ke haifar da rashin aikin cortico-striatal a cikin jarabar cocaine. Alamun magunguna (kalmomi) sun nuna ƙarancin kunnawar fMRI a cikin rostral ventral da caudal dorsal ACC fiye da kalmomin tsaka-tsaki a cikin masu shan cocaine ( Goldstein et al., 2007b ) waɗanda suka nuna ƙarancin kunnawa fiye da sarrafawa a cikin waɗannan yankuna na ACC ( Goldstein et al., 2009a ) amma mafi girman kunnawa a cikin midbrain ( Goldstein et al., 2009b ). Gudanar da maganin DA inganta methylphenidate (20 mg na baki) ya daidaita kunna hypo ACC a cikin masu shan cocaine ( Goldstein et al., 2010 ). A lokacin bidiyon cocaine-cue, kunna kwakwalwa a cikin DLPFC na hagu da cortex na occipital na biyu ya fi ƙarfi ga masu shan cocaine fiye da masu sarrafa lafiya ( Wilcox et al., 2011 ). Duk da haka, metabolism na glucose a cikin insula na hagu, OFC da NAc, da kuma parahippocampus na dama ya yi ƙasa da lokacin da masu shan cocaine suka kalli bidiyon cocaine-cue fiye da lokacin da suka kalli bidiyon tsaka-tsaki da methylphenidate (20 mg, na baki) ya rage martanin da ba a saba gani ba ga cocaine-cue ( Volkow et al., 2010b ). Lokacin da aka umarce su da su hana sha'awarsu kafin fallasa ga cocaine-cue, masu cin zarafin cocaine sun sami damar rage metabolism na OFC da NAc (idan aka kwatanta da yanayin lokacin da ba su da niyyar sarrafa sha'awarsu), wani tasiri wanda aka annabta ta hanyar metabolism na asali a cikin cortex na gaba na dama (BA 44) ( Volkow et al., 2010a ). A cikin mata masu shan cocaine, amma ba a cikin maza ba, fallasa ga cocaine-cue (bidiyo da aka auna tare da PET da FDG) yana da alaƙa da raguwa mai mahimmanci a cikin metabolism a cikin yankunan kwakwalwa na cortical waɗanda ke cikin hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal kuma suma ɓangare ne na hanyoyin sadarwa na sarrafawa ( Volkow et al., 2011a ). Ganin cewa DA tana daidaita hanyoyin sadarwa na sarrafawa ta hanyar hanyoyin cortical masu motsi, waɗannan binciken suna tallafawa shigar hanyoyin sadarwa na sarrafawa cikin jaraba. Bayan fallasa ga maganin ƙarfafawa da kanta (methylphenidate na cikin jijiya, wanda masu cin zarafin cocaine suka ruwaito yana da irin wannan tasirin ga waɗanda ke cin zarafin cocaine na jijiya), masu cin zarafin cocaine sun nuna ƙaruwar kunnawar metabolism a cikin OFC da ventral cingulate yayin da masu kula da abubuwan da ke cikin sarrafawa suka rage ayyukan metabolism a waɗannan yankuna ( Volkow et al., 1995 ).

Cibiyoyin sadarwa na striatal sun kuma kama kashi 71% na ƙungiyoyin kunnawa marasa kyau da suka shafi cocaine yayin aikin ƙwaƙwalwa da ayyukan kulawa na gani da kuma yankunan sarrafawa (wanda aka haɗa shi da V1) waɗanda suka haɗu da cibiyar sadarwa ta dorsal striatal ( Hoto na 3 , rawaya) suna da yuwuwar samun rashin daidaituwa fiye da waɗanda ba su haɗu da hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal ba (kore). A lokacin aikin ƙwaƙwalwar ajiyar n-back, mutanen da ke da cocaine sun nuna ƙarancin kunnawa a cikin thalamus da midbrain, dorsal striatum, ACC, da yankunan limbic (amygdala da parahippocampus) da kuma yawan kunnawa a cikin PFC da parietal cortices ( Tomasi et al., 2007a ). Wasu daga cikin waɗannan rashin daidaituwa an ƙara su a cikin masu cin zarafin cocaine tare da fitsari mai kyau don cocaine a lokacin bincike wanda ke nuna cewa ƙarancin na iya nuna wani ɓangare na rashin shan cocaine da wuri ( Tomasi et al., 2007a ). Hakika, a lokacin farkon daina shan cocaine, mutanen da ke neman maganin hana shan cocaine sun nuna kunna hypo a cikin striatum, ACC, inferior PFC, precentral gyrus, da thalamus idan aka kwatanta da sarrafawa ( Moeller et al., 2010 ). Wasu bincike kan ƙwaƙwalwar aiki sun nuna cewa alamun cocaine na iya ƙara kunna kwakwalwa a cikin occipital cortex ( Hester da Garavan, 2009 ). A lokacin ayyukan kulawa ta gani, masu cin zarafin cocaine suna da ƙarancin kunna thalamic da mafi girman occipital cortex da kunna PFC fiye da sarrafawa ( Tomasi et al., 2007b ). Alaƙar da ke tsakanin rashin aikin cortico-striatal da kunna fMRI mara kyau yayin ayyukan ƙwaƙwalwa da kulawa ta faru galibi a mahadar hanyoyin sadarwa na dorsal da ventral, waɗanda ke da yuwuwar sau 3 mafi girma (adadin gungu da aka daidaita ta hanyar girman hanyar sadarwa) fiye da yankunan da ba su da alaƙa da aikin striatum ( Hoto na 5 ).

A lokacin yanke shawara tare da aikin caca na Iowa, masu cin zarafin cocaine sun nuna mafi girman kwararar jini na kwakwalwa (rCBF; an auna shi da ¹⁵ O-water PET) a gefen dama na OFC da ƙananan rCBF a cikin DLPFC da medial PFC idan aka kwatanta da sarrafawa ( Bolla et al., 2003 ). A lokacin aikin zaɓi na tilastawa a ƙarƙashin yanayi uku na ƙimar kuɗi, mutanen da ke shan cocaine sun nuna ƙarancin amsoshin fMRI ga ladan kuɗi a cikin OFC, PFC da occipital cortex, midbrain, thalamus, insula da cerebellum ( Goldstein et al., 2007a ). Ƙasa da yadda aka saba samun D2R a cikin dorsal striatum yana da alaƙa da raguwar martanin kunnawa na thalamic yayin da a cikin ventral striatum yana da alaƙa da ƙaruwar kunnawa na medial PFC a cikin mutanen da ke shan cocaine ( Asensio et al., 2010 ). Kamar ayyukan fahimi, binciken da aka yi a mahadar hanyoyin sadarwa na dorsal da ventral sun nuna mafi girman yuwuwar fiye da waɗanda ke cikin yankunan da ba su da alaƙa da striatum.

Kashi sittin da huɗu cikin ɗari na rukunonin kwakwalwa da aka ruwaito ta hanyar nazarin fMRI kan ayyukan hanawa an haɗa su a cikin hanyoyin sadarwa na tashin hankali. A lokacin da masu shan cocaine ke hanawa/babu-go suka nuna ƙarancin kunnawa fiye da sarrafawa a OFC, yankin motsa jiki na ƙarin da ACC, yankuna waɗanda ƙila su zama mahimmanci ga sarrafa fahimta ( Hester da Garavan, 2004 ). Masu amfani da cocaine na ɗan gajeren lokaci da na dogon lokaci sun nuna bambancin kunnawa a cikin PFC, temporal cortex, cingulum, thalamus da cerebellum ( Connolly et al., 2011 ). A lokacin ayyuka daban-daban na hanawa (Stroop interference) masu shan cocaine sun nuna ƙarancin rCBF a hagu ACC da dama PFC, da kuma mafi girma rCBF a dama ACC fiye da sarrafawa ( Bolla et al., 2004 ). Haɗin aikin striatal ya kasa bayyana bambance-bambancen kunna kwakwalwa daga nazarin da suka yi amfani da ayyukan dakatarwa-siginar ( Li et al., 2008 ). Waɗannan nazarin sun nuna ƙarancin kunnawa a cikin ACC, parietal da occipital cortices a cikin masu cin zarafin cocaine. Nazarin PET da aka yi a auna masu karɓar mu opioid (ta amfani da [ ¹¹ C]carfentanil) ya nuna mafi girman takamaiman ɗaurewa a cikin cortices na gaba da na ɗan lokaci ga waɗanda ke dogara da cocaine na kwana ɗaya fiye da waɗanda ke da iko, kuma waɗannan abubuwan da ba su dace ba sun ragu tare da kauracewa kuma suna da alaƙa da amfani da cocaine ( Gorelick et al., 2005 ; Ghitza et al., 2010 ).

Methamphetamine

Idan aka kwatanta da waɗanda aka yi wa gwaji, waɗanda aka gwada wa cin zarafin metamphetamine a lokacin cirewar farko sun nuna raguwar metabolism na glucose a cikin striatum da thalamus yayin da suka nuna ƙaruwar aiki a cikin parietal cortex ( Volkow et al., 2001a ). Wannan ya nuna cewa duka sassan kwakwalwa na DA da waɗanda ba DA ba suna shafar shan metamphetamine na yau da kullun ( Volkow et al., 2001a ). Bugu da ƙari, raguwar ayyukan DA na striatal yana da alaƙa da babban yuwuwar sake dawowa yayin magani ( Wang et al., 2011b ), tsawaita lokacin daina shan ƙwayoyi yana da alaƙa da murmurewa na wani ɓangare na DAT na striatal ( Volkow et al., 2001b ) da kuma metabolism na kwakwalwa na yanki ( Wang et al., 2004 ), kuma raguwar D2R na striatal suma suna da alaƙa da raguwar metabolism a cikin OFC a cikin masu cin zarafin methamphetamine da aka cire kwanan nan ( Volkow et al., 2001a ).

Babban kaso (70%) na binciken fMRI da ke da alaƙa da methamphetamine ya ƙunshi hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal ( Hoto na 5 ). Idan aka kwatanta da sarrafawa, mutanen da suka dogara da methamphetamine sun nuna mafi girman kunnawar ACC yayin hana amsawar go/no-go ( Leland et al., 2008 ), da kuma kunna PFC na ƙasan dama yayin tsangwama na Stroop ( Salo et al., 2009 ). Yawancin waɗannan rukunin kunnawa marasa kyau (88%) sun faru ne a cikin hanyar sadarwa ta dorsal (gami da haɗuwa da hanyar sadarwa ta ventral). Duk da haka, yayin yanke shawara, an kewaye ƙananan kaso (64%) na ƙungiyoyin ta striatal. Ta amfani da aikin hasashen zaɓi biyu, Paulus da abokan aiki sun gano cewa kunna fMRI ya yi ƙasa a cikin PFC ( Paulus et al., 2002 ), OFC, ACC da parietal cortex don mutanen da suka dogara da methamphetamine fiye da na sarrafawa ( Paulus et al., 2003 ). Bugu da ƙari, haɗuwa da amsoshin kunnawa a waɗannan yankuna sun fi annabta lokacin da za a sake dawowa kuma sun nuna nau'ikan kunnawa daban-daban a matsayin aikin ƙimar kuskure a cikin insula na hagu da DLPFC ( Paulus et al., 2005 ).

marijuana

Haɗarin rashin aikin motsa jiki a cikin jarabar wiwi ba a fayyace shi sosai ba saboda ba a lura da rashin daidaituwa na asali na D2R ko sakin DA na striatal ba (bayan ƙalubalen amphetamine) a cikin binciken PET na baya-bayan nan tare da [ ¹¹ C]raclopride ( Urban et al., 2012 ; Stokes et al., 2012 ). Wani bincike na FDG ya nuna cewa lokacin da aka ba da tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) masu cin zarafin wiwi na yau da kullun sun nuna ƙaruwa a cikin OFC da medial PFC da kuma a cikin striatum yayin da sarrafawa ba ta yi ba, amma ya ƙara yawan metabolism na cerebellar a cikin masu cin zarafi da sarrafawa wanda ke nuna cewa hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal suna da hannu a cikin jarabar wiwi ( Volkow et al., 1996b ). An nuna alamun da suka shafi wiwi masu tausasawa idan aka kwatanta da alamun tsaka tsaki don ƙara kunna fMRI a cikin VTA, thalamus, ACC, insula, da amygdala, suna tallafawa shigar da hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal, da kuma a cikin sauran prefrontal, parietal da occipital cortices da cerebellum a cikin masu amfani da wiwi na baya-bayan nan ( Filbey et al., 2009 ). A lokacin aikin kulawa ta gani, masu cin zarafin marijuana suna da ƙarancin kunnawar fMRI a cikin PFC na dama, cortex na parietal da cerebellum (wanda aka daidaita tare da tsawon lokacin kauracewa) da kuma kunnawa mafi girma a cikin cortices na gaba, parietal da occipital fiye da sarrafawa ( Chang et al., 2006 ). Duk da haka, a lokacin ƙwaƙwalwar aiki, masu cin zarafin marijuana sun nuna raguwar kunnawa a cikin lobes na temporal, ACC, parahippocampus da thalamus tare da ƙaruwar aikin aiki, tasirin hulɗar aiki na rukuni × wanda ya kasance akasin haka a cikin sarrafawa ( Padula et al., 2007 ). A lokacin hana go/no-go, matasa masu tarihin amfani da marijuana sun nuna ƙaruwar kunnawar fMRI a cikin DLPFC, cortices na parietal da occipital, da insula fiye da matasa ba tare da tarihin amfani da marijuana ba ( Tapert et al., 2007 ). A lokacin haɗakar visuomotor tare da aikin jerin yatsun da aka nuna ta hanyar allon dubawa mai walƙiya, masu amfani da marijuana suna da mafi girman kunnawar PFC da ƙarancin kunnawar cortex na gani fiye da sarrafawa ( King et al., 2011 ). Kashi sittin da tara cikin ɗari na ƙungiyoyin kunnawa marasa kyau a cikin binciken da aka yi kan tasirin wiwi akan aikin kwakwalwa suna cikin yankunan da ke da alaƙa da yanayin aiki.

kiba

Halayyar ciyarwa mai kama da tilastawa a cikin berayen masu kiba an danganta ta da raguwar D2R mai ɗaurewa ( Johnson da Kenny, 2010 ) kuma an danganta kiba da ƙarancin D2R mai ɗaurewa a cikin mutane ( Wang et al., 2001 ), yana nuna cewa daidaitawar jijiyoyi na yau da kullun a cikin hanyar DA mai ɗaurewa na iya haifar da kiba da jarabar miyagun ƙwayoyi. Nazarin PET na asali game da metabolism na glucose na kwakwalwa a cikin mutane masu kiba sun ba da rahoton raguwar ayyukan metabolism a cikin OFC da ACC waɗanda ke da alaƙa da ƙarancin samuwar D2R mai ɗaurewa fiye da na al'ada ( Volkow et al., 2008b ).

Kunna kwakwalwa a cikin dorsal da ventral striatum, insula, hippocampus, OFC, amygdala, medial PFC da ACC waɗanda aka haifar ta hanyar fallasa gani ga abinci mai yawan kalori sun fi yawa ga masu kiba fiye da mata masu iko ( Rothemund et al., 2007 ; Stoeckel et al., 2008 ). Hakazalika, alamun abinci na gani sun haifar da karuwar martanin kunnawa na fMRI a yankunan gaba, na lokaci, da limbic ga manya masu kiba fiye da na sarrafawa ( Dimitropoulos et al., 2012 ), kuma kunna hippocampal ya nuna alaƙa da matakan azumi na insulin da kewayen kugu a cikin matasa ( Wallner-Liebmann et al., 2010 ). Kunnawa ta striatal a cikin martani ga shan cakulan milkshake yana da alaƙa da ƙaruwa a cikin nauyin jiki da kuma kasancewar allele na A1 na tsawon tsayin ƙuntatawa na TaqIA, wanda ke da alaƙa da ɗaure kwayar halittar D2R a cikin striatum da siginar DA mai rauni ( Stice et al., 2008 ). Matasa masu haɗarin kiba sun nuna ƙaruwar kunnawa a cikin caudate da operculum saboda shan milkshake na cakulan fiye da waɗanda ke da ƙarancin haɗarin kiba ( Stice et al., 2011 ). A lokacin narkewar ciki, kamar yadda yake faruwa yayin cin abinci, waɗanda ke da kiba sun ƙara yawan kunnawar fMRI fiye da waɗanda ke da nauyin al'ada a cikin cerebellum da posterior insula da raguwar kunnawa a cikin amygdala, midbrain, hypothalamus, thalamus, pons, da anterior insula ( Tomasi et al., 2009b ). Kashi tamanin da biyu cikin ɗari na ƙungiyoyin kunnawa daga waɗannan nazarin kan amsawar cue sun faru a yankunan da ke da alaƙa da aikin striatum ( Hoto na 6 ). Daidai da waɗannan martanin kunnawa nazarin PET da ke auna D2R tare da [ ¹⁸ F]fallypride a cikin waɗanda ke da kiba ya nuna alaƙar da ke tsakanin ghrelin da D2R a cikin dorsal da ventral striatum da kuma a cikin ƙananan temporal cortex, temporal pole, insula da amygdala ( Dunn et al., 2012 ).

 

Fig 6

Yawan dangi na mahaukacin mahaɗan kowace hanyar sadarwa: Kiba da matsalar rashin abinci

Tsinkayar abinci da kuma sarrafa abinci

A cikin yanayi na yau da kullun, ana tsammanin yawan cin abinci yana faruwa ne ta hanyar abubuwan homeostatic (daidaitaccen kuzari da abubuwan gina jiki a cikin jiki) da abubuwan da ba na homeostatic ba (jin daɗin cin abinci), kuma an danganta DA da halayen cin abinci ( Volkow et al., 2003b ). Nazarin magunguna na fMRI sun nuna cewa kunna hypothalamic yana annabta yawan cin abinci lokacin da yawan PYY na plasma, wani hormone peptide wanda ke ba da siginar gamsuwa daga hanji ga kwakwalwa, ya yi ƙasa kuma cewa kunnawa a cikin OFC striatum, VTA, SN, cerebellum, PFC, insula da cingulum na iya annabta halayyar ciyarwa lokacin da yawan PYY na plasma ya yi yawa ( Batterham et al., 2007 ).

Nazarin da suka shafi abubuwan da suka faru, waɗanda suka bambanta martanin kwakwalwa ga ɗanɗanon sucrose da ruwa mara daɗi, sun nuna cewa yunwa tana da alaƙa da kunna fMRI a cikin insula, thalamus, cerebellum, cingulum, SN da kuma yankunan kwakwalwa na cortical yayin da gamsuwa tana da alaƙa da kashewa a cikin parahippocampus, hippocampus, amygdala da ACC ( Haase et al., 2009 ). A cikin wannan binciken, bambancin tasirin yunwa da gamsuwa akan kunna kwakwalwa don ƙarfafa dandano (mai gishiri, tsami, ɗaci, mai daɗi) ya fi ƙarfi ga maza fiye da mata, musamman a cikin dorsal striatum, amygdala, parahippocampus da posterior cingulum ( Haase et al., 2011 ). Nazarin PET kan sarrafa hanawa a cikin yanayin yunwa wanda ya yi amfani da ainihin motsa abinci ya nuna cewa hana sha'awar abinci da gangan ya rage metabolism na glucose a cikin amygdala, hippocampus, insula, striatum da OFC a cikin maza amma ba a cikin mata ba ( Wang et al., 2009 ). Babban kaso (> 31%) na ƙungiyoyin kunnawa sun faru a yankuna da ke da alaƙa da dorsal da ventral striatum ( Hoto na 6 , magenta).

cin cuta

Nazarin magunguna ya nuna cewa katsewar siginar DA a cikin striatum na iya hana ciyarwa ta al'ada a cikin beraye ( Sotak et al., 2005 ; Cannon et al., 2004 ) kuma cewa siginar DA tana daidaita amsawa ga alamun abinci a cikin mutane ( Volkow et al., 2002 ). Nazarin PET na marasa lafiya da ke fama da anorexia (ikon sarrafa halaye na cin abinci fiye da kima) ya nuna sama da samuwar D2R na yau da kullun ( Frank et al., 2005 ). Sabanin haka, wani bincike da aka yi kwanan nan a cikin marasa lafiya marasa kiba da ke fama da matsalar cin abinci mai yawa ya nuna cewa yayin da ba su bambanta a cikin samuwar D2R daga sarrafawa ba, sun nuna haɓaka sakin DA na striatal yayin ƙarfafa abinci ( Wang et al., 2011a ). Nazarin fMRI ya nuna cewa lokacin da aka fallasa su ga hotunan abinci masu daɗi, marasa lafiya da ke da matsalar cin abinci mai yawa suna da ƙarfi a cikin OFC na tsakiya wanda ke sarrafawa yayin da marasa lafiya da ke da bulimia nervosa suna da ƙarfi a cikin martanin ACC da insula fiye da sarrafawa ( Schienle et al., 2009 ). A lokacin hana cin abinci mai yawa/babu-tafi, mata matasa da ke cin abinci mai yawa/tsarkakewa sun nuna ƙaruwar kunnawa a cikin cortex na temporal, PFC da ACC fiye da sarrafawa, kuma marasa lafiya da ke fama da anorexia nervosa sun nuna ƙaruwar kunnawa a cikin hypothalamus da PFC na gefe ( Lock et al., 2011 ). Tunda ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan rukunin yana wajen hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal, waɗannan bayanan kuma suna tabbatar da rawar da hanyoyin sadarwa na cortico-striatal ke takawa a cikin matsalolin cin abinci.

Yankunan farko

Ana daidaita cortex na prefrontal da striatum ta hanyar hanyoyin sadarwa na cortico-striatal waɗanda DA ta tsara ( Haber, 2003 ). Cortex na gaba yana taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin fahimta, gami da sarrafa hanawa, yanke shawara, daidaita motsin rai, niyya, motsawa da kuma bayyanar da hankali da sauransu. An yi hasashen cewa rashin aiki a yankunan gaba na iya kawo cikas ga ikon sarrafa shan miyagun ƙwayoyi ( Kalivas, 2004 ; Volkow da Fowler, 2000 ), kuma cewa katsewar cortex na gaba na iya haifar da mummunan sakamako a cikin jarabar miyagun ƙwayoyi ( Volkow et al., 2006 ).

Matsalolin da aka bayyana a gabanmu ta hanyar nazarin meta-bincike sun yi daidai da alaƙar da ke tsakanin raguwar D2R mai tsauri da raguwar ayyukan metabolism a cikin ACC, OFC da DLPFC da aka ruwaito a baya ga masu cin zarafin cocaine da methamphetamine da masu shan giya ( Volkow et al., 1993 ; Volkow et al., 2001a ; Volkow et al., 2007 ). Tunda ACC, OFC na gefe da DLPFC suna da hannu wajen sarrafa hanawa da yanke shawara ( Goldstein da Volkow, 2002 ; Phan et al., 2002 ), wannan haɗin yana nuna cewa rashin iko akan shan ƙwayoyi ( Volkow et al., 1996a ) na iya nuna rashin daidaitaccen tsarin DA a cikin waɗannan yankuna na gaba. Wannan hasashen yana samun goyon baya ne daga nazarin da ya danganta raguwar D2R da maki na rashin kuzari a cikin masu cin zarafin methamphetamine ( Lee et al., 2009 ) da beraye ( Everitt et al., 2008 ) da kuma waɗanda suka haɗa raunin ACC tare da halayen tilastawa da rashin kuzari ( Rolls, 2000 ). Duk da haka, wani yuwuwar ita ce rashin daidaituwar farko a yankunan gaba yana haifar da maimaita amfani da miyagun ƙwayoyi da kuma daidaitawar neuro wanda ke rage striatal D2R. Misali, mutanen da ba sa shan giya waɗanda ke da tarihin shan giya na iyali suna da sama da D2R na yau da kullun wanda ke da alaƙa da metabolism na yau da kullun a cikin ACC, OFC da DLPFC, yana nuna cewa aiki na yau da kullun a yankunan gaba yana haɓaka ikon hanawa da daidaita motsin rai na iya zama hanyar da ta kare waɗannan mutane daga shan barasa ( Volkow et al., 2006 ). Abin sha'awa, wani bincike da aka yi kwanan nan wanda ya kwatanta rashin jituwa tsakanin 'yan'uwa da jarabar motsa jiki ya nuna bambance-bambance masu yawa a cikin yawan OFC na medial ( Ersche et al., 2012 ), yana nuna cewa waɗannan bambance-bambancen sun nuna fallasa ga maganin maimakon raunin kwayoyin halitta ( Volkow da Baler, 2012 ).

Yankunan yan lokutan

Hakanan ana haɗa striatum ɗin da tsarin lobe na tsakiya (hippocampus parahippocampal gyrus) waɗanda suke da mahimmanci don ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya bayyananne amma kuma don daidaitawa ( Haber et al., 2006 ). Nazarin kunna kwakwalwa akan koyo mai kwarin gwiwa ya rubuta shigar tsarin lobe na tsakiya a cikin haɓaka ƙwaƙwalwa na gaba ( Adcock et al., 2006 ; Wittmann et al., 2005 ). Don haka alamun magunguna na iya haifar da sha'awar ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya da ke kunna da'irorin koyo a cikin kwakwalwa na tsakiya, kuma wannan ingantaccen kunnawa na da'irorin ƙwaƙwalwa na iya taimakawa wajen shawo kan ikon hanawa da cortex na gaba ke yi a cikin jarabar abinci da miyagun ƙwayoyi ( Volkow et al., 2003a ). Bincikenmu ya nuna cewa jarabar ƙwayoyi, kiba da rikice-rikicen cin abinci suna da alaƙa da rashin daidaituwa na kunna kwakwalwa a cikin kwakwalwa na tsakiya (hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus da amygdala), cortices na zamani mafi girma da na ƙasa da kuma posterior insula (P _FWE < 0.05). Tsarin rashin daidaituwar kunnawar kwakwalwa ya mamaye hanyoyin sadarwa na dorsal (40%), ventral (10%) da kuma haɗuwa (48%); kashi 2% ne kawai na rashin daidaituwar ba su nuna haɗuwa da hanyoyin sadarwa na striatal ba. Bincikenmu na meta ya kuma bayyana ƙarin rashin daidaituwa a cikin tsarin lobe na tsakiya a cikin kiba da matsalolin cin abinci idan aka kwatanta da jarabar miyagun ƙwayoyi ( Hoto na 4 ). Wannan yana nuna cewa waɗannan yankuna na ɗan lokaci suna da hannu a cikin daidaita halayen cin abinci zuwa mafi girma fiye da yadda ake daidaita shan ƙwayoyi. Musamman cin abinci ana tsara shi ta hanyar hanyoyin homeostatic da lada kuma yayin da tsarin homeostatic ke daidaita hanyar lada, yana kuma daidaita sauran yankuna na kwakwalwa ta hanyar hormones daban-daban da neuropeptides na gefe waɗanda ke daidaita yunwa da ƙoshi. Hakika yankuna na tsakiya na ɗan lokaci (hippocampus, parahippocampus) suna bayyana masu karɓar leptin ( Williams et al., 1999 ) da masu karɓar haɓakar insulin-like growth factor ( Wilczak et al., 2000 ) da kuma mRNA don kwayar halittar mai karɓar ghrelin ( Guan et al., 1997 ). Don haka babban shigar da ƙwayoyin cuta na lokaci-lokaci a cikin kiba fiye da jaraba ya yi daidai da shigar da hormones da neuropeptides waɗanda ke daidaita abincin da ake ci ta hanyar homeostatic.

Sakamako da halaye na gari

Ga duka hanyoyin bayar da lada ga shan ƙwayoyi da abinci a cikin ventral striatum da farko suna haifar da dalilin maimaita wannan hali. Duk da haka, tare da maimaita martanin da aka bayar game da fallasa da kuma ƙungiyoyin da aka koya suna canza dalilin ƙarfafawa zuwa ga abin ƙarfafawa wanda ke annabta lada. Wannan sauyi, tare da ƙarin ƙarfafawa da ke tattare da yin halayen da suka wajaba don cin ladar (magani ko abinci), yana buƙatar shiga cikin dorsal striatum ( Belin da Everitt, 2008 ). Bugu da ƙari, maimaitawa ga haɗuwa da ke da alaƙa yana haifar da halaye waɗanda za su iya ƙara haifar da hali (gami da cin abinci ko shan ƙwayoyi ko barasa) suma sun haɗa da yankunan dorsal striatum. Duk da haka, a cikin sake duba babban haɗuwa tsakanin haɗin ventral da dorsal striatum, saboda haka ba abin mamaki bane cewa bincike ya nuna kunna ventral da dorsal striatum duka tare da lada da yanayin. Hakanan yayin da dorsal striatum ke da alaƙa da halaye, samuwarsu na iya buƙatar ci gaba daga ventral zuwa dorsal striatum ( Everitt et al., 2008 ).

M cibiyoyin sadarwa a jaraba da kiba

Wani muhimmin bincike daga wannan binciken shine cewa nakasassuwar abinci a cikin maye ko shaye-shayen miyagun ƙwayoyi suna faruwa ne a cikin sassan kwakwalwa waɗanda ke da alaƙa da duka ƙarancin ciki da na jijiyoyin hannu. Wadannan yankuna masu rauni suna da mahimmanci don kulawa da hankali (cingulum na gaba da yanki na motsa jiki), lada da motsawa (striatum da medial OFC) da kuma ilmantarwa mai ba da gudummawa (hippocampus and gyhipampamp gyrus). Theaƙƙarfan yanayin haɓakawa na ma'anar halayyar mahaukata ya ba da shawara cewa yanayin dopaminergic daga dorsal da ventral striatum yana da mahimmanci a cikin waɗannan yankuna, kuma raunin da ke tattare da shi ya nuna cewa jarabawar abinci / miyagun ƙwayoyi na iya canza daidaitaccen yanayin daidaitawa da kunna kwakwalwa a cikin waɗannan yankuna.

gazawar

Nazarin mu na meta yana kunshe da karatu kan mummunan tasirin kwayoyi da abinci (cloli), da kuma karatuttukan kan jijiyoyi (ƙwaƙwalwa, hankali, hanawa, yanke shawara) da kuma motsin rai yayin da kwayoyi ko abinci basa halarta. Tunda tasirin kai tsaye da na dogon lokaci na maganin maye / magunguna sun sha bamban da mahalarta cikin karatun da suka gabata na iya zama ko bazai zama mafi saurin canjin kwakwalwa ba. Waɗannan suna iya haɓaka bambanci, iyakance fassarar sakamakon. Yawan bayyanar cututtukan wucin gadi na matsakaici a cikin kiba da matsalar cin abinci idan aka kwatanta da na masu shan kwayoyi na iya nuna tsananin rikicewar saboda ba abu bane mai sauki ka danganta tsananin, tsawon lokaci ko lokacin farawar cuta.

A taƙaice, wannan bincike na kwanan nan na nazarin hoton kwakwalwa kan nau'ikan jarabar miyagun ƙwayoyi da cututtuka daban-daban da aka siffanta da rashin kula da ɗabi'a akan halaye masu kyau (cin abinci) ya nuna cewa akwai wakilci mai yawa na kunnawa mara kyau (ga alamu da kuma yayin ayyukan fahimta) wanda ke faruwa akai-akai a yankunan da akwai haɗuwa tsakanin hanyoyin ventral da dorsal striatum. Wannan ya tabbatar da cewa a cikin mutane cewa duka ventral striatum (wanda galibi yana da alaƙa da sarrafa lada) da dorsal striatum (wanda galibi yana da alaƙa da halaye da al'adu a cikin jaraba) suna da matsala a cikin cututtukan jaraba ( Mai hikima, 2009 ) kuma cewa waɗannan rashin daidaituwa suna tasiri kan aiwatar da lada (magunguna da abinci) abubuwan da ke da alaƙa da lada (alamu) da hanyoyin fahimta da ake buƙata don sarrafa kai (aikin zartarwa). Duk da haka, yankunan tsakiya na lokaci-lokaci na cortical waɗanda ke cikin hanyar dorsal striatum sun nuna babban rauni ga kiba da matsalolin cin abinci fiye da jarabar miyagun ƙwayoyi ( Hoto na 4 ), yana nuna cewa akwai kuma nau'ikan rashin daidaituwa tsakanin waɗannan tsarin rashin daidaituwa.

An kammala wannan aikin tare da tallafi daga Cibiyoyin ofasa na Alcohol Abuse da Alcoholism (2RO1AA09481).

Sanin sha'awa

Marubutan sun ba da sanarwar komai ban sha'awa.

• Adcock R, Thangavel A, Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Knutson B, Gabrieli J. Karatun da aka sabunta: kunnawa mesolimbic ya wuce samuwar ƙwaƙwalwa. Neuron. 2006; 50: 507 – 517. [PubMed]
• Asensio S, Romero M, Romero F, Wong C, Alia-Klein N, Tomasi D, Wang G, Telang F, Volkow N, Goldstein R. Striatal dopamine D2 mai karɓar rashi D2010 yana tsinkayar martani na thalamic da medial prefrontal don ba da lada ga masu cin zarafin cocaine uku. bayan shekaru. Synapse. 64; 397: 402 – XNUMX. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Atkinson T. Central da na gefe neuroendocrine peptides da siginar a cikin ƙa'idar ci: la'akari da kiba a cikin magunguna na kiba. Rev. 2008; 9: 108 – 120. [PubMed]
• Avena N, Rada P, Hoebel B. Hujjoji game da jarabar sukari: halayya da tasirin neurochemical na rikitarwa, yawan shan sukari mai yawa. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2008; 32: 20 – 39. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Batterham R, ffytche D, Rosenthal J, Zelaya F, Barker G, Withers D, Williams S. PYY daidaituwar cortical da sassan kwakwalwa na hypothalamic sun annabta halayen kulawa a cikin mutane. Yanayi. 2007; 450: 106 – 109. [PubMed]
• Belin D, Everitt B. Magungunan ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa na dogaro sun dogara ne da haɗin haɗin dopamine wanda ya danganta ventral tare da layin dorsal. Neuron. 2008; 57: 432 – 441. [PubMed]
• Biswal B, Mennes M, Zuo X, Gohel S, Kelly C, Smith S, Beckmann C, Adelstein J, Buckner R, Colcombe S, Dogonowski A, Ernst M, Fair D, Hampson M, Hoptman M, Hyde J, Kiviniemi V , Kötter R, Li S, Lin C, Lowe M, Mackay C, Madden D, Madsen K, Margulies D, Mayberg H, McMahon K, Monk C, Mostofsky S, Nagel B, Pekar J, Peltier S, Petersen S, Riedl V, Rombouts S, Rypma B, Schlaggar B, Schmidt S, Seidler R, Siegle GJ, Sorg C, Teng G, Veijola J, Villringer A, Walter M, Wang L, Weng X, Whitfield-Gabrieli S, Williamson P, Windischberger C, Zang Y, Zhang H, Castellanos F, Milham M. Toward ne aka gano kimiyyar ayyukan kwakwalwar dan adam. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2010; 107: 4734 – 4739. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Boileau I, Assaad J, Pihl R, Benkelfat C, Leyton M, Diksic M, Tremblay R, Dagher A. Alcohol yana inganta sakin dopamine a cikin ƙimar ɗan adam. Synapse. 2003; 49: 226 – 231. [PubMed]
• Bolla K, Eldreth D, London E, Kiehl K, Mouratidis M, Contoreggi C, Matochik J, Kurian V, Cadet J, Kimes A, Funderburk F, Ernst M. Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in the abstinent cocaine zagi suna yin aikin yanke shawara. Neuroimage. 2003; 19: 1085 – 1094. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Bolla K, Ernst M, Kiehl K, Mouratidis M, Eldreth D, Contoreggi C, Matochik J, Kurian V, Cadet J, Kimes A, Funderburk F, London E. Prefrontal cortical dysfunction in abstain of cocaine abusers. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2004; 16: 456 – 464. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Bossong M, van Berckel B, Boellaard R, Zuurman L, Schuit R, Windhorst A, van Gerven J, Ramsey N, Lammertsma A, Kahn R. Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol suna haifar da sakin dopamine a cikin tasirin dan adam. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009; 34: 759 – 766. [PubMed]
• Braskie M, Landau S, Wilcox C, Taylor S, O'Neil J, Baker S, Madison C, Jagust W. Kuskure na rikicewar dopamine mai rikitarwa tare da lalata tsoffin hanyar sadarwa yayin ƙwaƙwalwar ajiyar a cikin manya. Hum Brain Mapp. 2011; 32: 947 – 961. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Brody A, Mandelkern M, Olmstead R, Allen-Martinez Z, Scheibal D, Abrams A, Costello M, Farahi J, Saxena S, Monterosso J, London E. Ventral striatal dopamine sakin amsa saboda shan sigari na yau da kullun vs sigar shan taba sigari. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009; 32: 282 – 289. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Cannon C, Abdallah L, Tecott L, Yayin M, Palmiter R. Dysregulation na damƙar siginar dopamine ta amphetamine yana hana ciyarwa ta hanyar mice mai fama da yunwa. Neuron. 2004; 44: 509 – 520. [PubMed]
• Cason A, Smith R, Tahsili-Fahadan P, Moorman D, Sartor G, Aston-Jones G. Role na orexin / munafunci a cikin neman sakamako da jaraba: abubuwan da ke haifar da kiba. Fuskar Behav. 2010; 100: 419 – 428. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Canjin L, Yakupov R, Cloak C, Ernst T. Marijuana ana amfani da shi tare da sake fasalin hanyar sadarwa ta hanyar gani-da-hankali da haɓakar haɓaka ta cerebellar. Kwakwalwa 2006; 129: 1096 – 1112. [PubMed]
• Connolly C, Foxe J, Nierenberg J, Shpaner M, Garavan H. Maganin ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa a cikin nasarar hana shan kwaya. Alan Ruwa na Dogaro. 2011 Epub kafin bugawa. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Cota D, Tschop M, Horvath T, Levine A. Cannabinoids, opioids da halayyar cin abinci: fuskar kwayar cutar hedonism? Brain Res Rev. 2006; 51: 85 – 107. [PubMed]
• de Araujo I, Oliveira-Maia A, Sotnikova T, Gainetdinov R, Caron M, Nicolelis M, Simon S. Abinci da rashin kyawun alamar masu karɓar dandano. Neuron. 2008; 57: 930 – 941. [PubMed]
• Di Chiara G, Dama A. Drugs da wasu mutane suka ji dadin su suna ƙara yawan maganin synaptic dopamine a cikin tsarin mesolimbic na ratsan motsi. Kamfanin Natl Acad Sci US A. 1988; 85: 5274-5278. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Di Martino A, Scheres A, Margulies D, Kelly A, Uddin L, Shehzad Z, Biswal B, Walters J, Castellanos F, Milham M. Haɗin aikin ɗan adam na ɗan adam: karatun hutu ne na FMRI. Cereb Cortex. 2008; 18: 2735 – 2747. [PubMed]
• Dimitropoulos A, Tkach J, Ho A, Kennedy J. erarfafa corticolimbic zuwa sikelin abinci mai adadin kuzari bayan cin abinci a cikin manya-manya da manyan mutane masu nauyi. Ci. 2012; 58: 303 – 312. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Drevets W, Gautier C, Farashin J, Kupfer D, Kinahan P, Grace A, Farashin J, Mathis C. Amphetamine-induced dopamine saki a cikin ventral striatum correlates with euphoria. Biol Psychiatry. 2001; 49: 81 – 96. [PubMed]
• Dunn J, Kessler R, Feurer I, Volkow N, Patterson B, Ansari M, Li R, Marks-Shulman P, Abumrad N. Dangantaka nau'in dopamine nau'in 2 mai karɓar ɗaukar damar tare da yin amfani da kwayoyin hormonendocrine na azumi da kuma ƙwayar insulin a cikin kiba na mutum. Kula da ciwon sukari. 2012; 35: 1105 – 1111. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Ersche K, Jones P, Williams G, Turton A, Robbins T, Bullmore E. Tsarin kwakwalwar da ba ta dace ba yana tasiri a cikin jarabar shan kwayoyi. Kimiyya. 2012; 335: 601 – 604. [PubMed]
• Everitt B, Belin D, Economidou D, Pelloux Y, Dalley J, Robbins T. Review. Tsarin hanyoyin na jijiyoyin wuya wanda ke tattare da rauni ya haifar da halayen neman magani da kuma jaraba. Filin Sakawa R Soc London B Biol Sci. 2008; 363: 3125 – 3135. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Ferry A, Ongür D, An X, Farashin J. Prefrontal cortical tsinkaya ga mahaɗa a cikin biranen Macaque: hujja ga ƙungiyar da ke da alaƙa da hanyoyin sadarwar prefrontal. J Comp Neurol. 2000; 425: 447 – 470. [PubMed]
• Filbey F, Claus E, Audette A, Niculescu M, Banich M, Tanabe J, Du Y, Hutchison K. Fitar da dandano na barasa yana haifar da kunnawar ƙwayar cuta ta mesocorticolimbic. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008; 33: 1391 – 1401. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Filbey F, Schacht J, Myers U, Chavez R, Hutchison K. Marijuana sha'awar a cikin kwakwalwa. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2009; 106: 13016 – 13021. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Fox M, Snyder A, Vincent J, Corbetta M, Van Essen D, Raichle M. An tsara kwakwalwar ɗan adam cikin cibiyoyin sadarwa masu tsauri, mai kare kansa. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2005; 102: 9673 – 9678. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Frank G, Bailer U, Henry S, Drevets W, Meltzer C, Farashin J, Mathis C, Wagner A, Hoge J, Ziolko S, Barbarich-Marsteller N, Weissfeld L, Kaye W. An ƙara ɗaukar dopamine D2 / D3 mai karɓa mai ɗauri bayan murmurewa daga anorexia nervosa an auna shi ta hanyar tomography na positron watsi da [11c] raclopride. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 58: 908 – 912. [PubMed]
• Freund G, Ballinger WJ. Neuroreceptor yana canje-canje a cikin maye na masu maye. Alkalin Clin Exp Res. 1989; 13: 213 – 218. [PubMed]
• García-García I, Jurado M, Garolera M, Segura B, Sala-Llonch R, Marqués-Iturria I, Pueyo R, Sender-Palacios M, Vernet-Vernet M, Narberhaus A, Ariza M, Junqué C. Canjin aikin salience cibiyar sadarwa cikin kiba: Nazarin fMRI-jihar hutu. Hum Brain Mapp. 2012 doi: 10.1002 / hbm.22104. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
• George M, Anton R, Bloomer C, Teneback C, Drobes D, Lorberbaum J, Nahas Z, Vincent D. ofarfafa cortex na prefrontal da kuma thalamus na ciki a cikin batutuwa masu shaye-shaye game da bayyanuwa ga takamaiman halaye na barasa. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001; 58: 345 – 352. [PubMed]
• Ghitza U, Preston K, Epstein D, Kuwabara H, Endres C, Bencherif B, Boyd S, Copersino M, Frost J, Gorelick D. Brain mu-opioid mai karɓa mai ɗaukar hoto ya faɗi sakamakon sakamako na maganin cututtukan ƙwaƙwalwa. Biol Psychiatry. 2010; 68: 697 – 703. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Gilman J, Ramchandani V, Crouss T, Hommer D. Abubuwan da ake magana a kai da kuma martani mai ban sha'awa ga giya mai narkewa a cikin samari masu girma tare da yanayin haske da nauyi. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2012; 37: 467 – 477. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Goldstein R, Alia-Klein N, Tomasi D, Carrillo J, Maloney T, Woicik P, Wang R, Telang F, Volkow N. Hanyar tsufa ta hanyar motsa jiki don aiki mai nutsuwa a cikin aikin maye. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2009a; 106: 9453 – 9458. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Goldstein R, Alia-Klein N, Tomasi D, Zhang L, Cottone L, Maloney T, Telang F, Caparelli E, Chang L, Ernst T, Samaras D, Squires N, Volkow N. an rage raguwar prefrontal cortical na hankali game da ladan lamuni tare da motsawar nakasa da kamun kai a cikin jarabar hodar Iblis? Am J mahaukacin tabin hankali. 2007a; 164: 1 – 9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Goldstein R, Tomasi D, Alia-Klein N, Carrillo J, Maloney T, Woicik P, Wang R, Telang F, Volkow N. Amsar maganganun magungunan miyagun ƙwayoyi a cikin maye. J Neurosci. 2009b; 29: 6001 – 6006. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Goldstein R, Tomasi D, Rajaram S, Cottone L, Zhang L, Maloney T, Telang F, Alia-Klein N, Volkow N. Matsayin ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar gabbai da ƙwaƙwalwar orbitofrontal cortex a cikin sarrafa magunguna a cikin maye. Neuroscience. 2007b; 144: 1153 – 1159. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Goldstein R, Volkow N. Magungunan kwayoyi da kuma tushenta na neurobiological: shaidar neuroimaging don sa hannun cikin cortex na gaban. Am J mahaukacin tabin hankali. 2002; 159: 1642 – 52. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Goldstein R, Volkow N. Rashin daidaituwa na cortex na prefrontal a cikin jaraba: binciken neuroimaging da abubuwan tasiri na asibiti. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2011; 12: 652 – 669. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Goldstein R, Woicik P, Maloney T, Tomasi D, Alia-Klein N, Shan J, Honorio J, Samaras D, Wang R, Telang F, Wang G, Volkow N. Oral methylphenidate normalizes shine cingulate aiki a addabar cocaine a yayin hankali aiki. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2010; 107: 16667 – 16672. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Gorelick D, Kim Y, Bencherif B, Boyd S, Nelson R, Copersino M, Endres C, Dannals R, Frost J. Mai karɓar ƙwaƙwalwar mu-opioid a cikin masu amfani da ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa: hanya ta zamani da alaƙa da sha'awar hodar. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 57: 1573 – 1582. [PubMed]
• Rahamar A. Tsarin tonic / fatalwa na tsarin dopamine tsarin da tasirin sa na fahimtar shan giya da sha'awar psychostimulant. Addua. 2000; 95 (Gudanar da 2): S119 – S128. [PubMed]
• Grüsser S, Goge J, Klein S, Hermann D, Smolka M, Ruf M, Weber-Fahr W, Flor H, Mann K, Braus D, Heinz A. Cue-induced na kunna wutar rikici da medial prefrontal cortex yana da alaƙa da mai zuwa. koma baya cikin masu maye giya. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 175: 296 – 302. [PubMed]
• Gu H, Salmeron B, Ross T, Geng X, Zhan W, Stein E, Yang Y. Mesocorticolimbic da'ira suna cikin rauni a cikin masu amfani da ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwayar cuta kamar yadda aka nuna ta hanyar haɗin hutu na jihar. Neuroimage. 2010; 53: 593 – 601. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Guan X, Yu H, Palyha O, McKee K, Feighner S, Sirinathsinghji D, Smith R, Van der Ploeg L, Howard A. Rarraba mRNA da ke tattare da karɓar ƙwaƙwalwar hormone mai haɓakawa a cikin kwakwalwa da naƙasassun ƙwayoyin. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1997; 48: 23 – 29. [PubMed]
• Gundersen H, Grüner R, Specht K, Hugdahl K. Sakamakon maye na giya a kan aikin jijiyoyin jini a matakai daban-daban na nauyin sani. Buɗe Neuroimag J. 2008; 2: 65 – 72. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Haase L, Cerf-Ducastel B, Murphy C. rtarfafawar Cortical don mayar da martani ga ƙoshin dandano mai tsabta yayin yanayin jijiyoyin jiki da yunwa. Neuroimage. 2009; 44: 1008 – 1021. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Haase L, Green E, Murphy C. Maza da mata suna nuna banbanci na aiki na kwakwalwa don ɗanɗano lokacin da ake jin yunwa da zama a wuraren gustatory da sakamako. Ci. 2011; 57: 421 – 434. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Haber S. Primary basal ganglia: daidaici da hanyoyin haɗin kai. J Chem Neuroanat. 2003; 26: 317 – 330. [PubMed]
• Haber S, Fudge J, McFarland N. Striatonigrostriatal hanyoyi a cikin firam sun samar da karkatacciyar karkace daga harsashi zuwa babban yanki. J Neurosci. 2000; 20: 2369 – 2382. [PubMed]
• Haber S, Kim K, Mailly P, Calzavara R. Abubuwan da suka shafi cortical masu ba da ma'anar cortical suna ba da babban yanki a cikin ƙa'idodin haɗin gwiwar tare da haɗin haɗin gwiwar haɗin gwiwa, samar da canji don ilmantarwa na tushen ƙarfafawa. J Neurosci. 2006; 26: 8368 – 8376. [PubMed]
• Hanlon C, Wesley M, Stapleton J, Laurienti P, Porrino L. associationungiyar tsakanin haɓakar gogayya-gaban fuska da sarrafawar firikwensin a cikin masu amfani da cocaine. Alan Ruwa na Dogaro. 2011; 115: 240 – 243. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Heitzeg M, Nigg J, Yau W, Zubieta J, Zucker R. Sakamakon aiki mai tasiri da haɗari ga shan giya a ƙarshen samari: bambance-bambance a cikin maganganun gaban mutane tsakanin masu rauni da masu juriya na iyayen giya. Alkalin Clin Exp Res. 2008; 32: 414 – 426. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Heitzeg M, Nigg J, Yau W, Zucker R, Zubieta J. Striatal dysfunction alama na preexisting hadarin da medial prefrontal lalata yana da nasaba da matsalar sha a cikin yara masu giya. Biol Psychiatry. 2010; 68: 287 – 295. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Hester R, Garavan H. Babban lalacewa a cikin shan maganin hodar iblis: shaidar don rikicewar gaban gaba, cingulate, da kuma aikin cerebellar. J Neurosci. 2004; 24: 11017 – 11022. [PubMed]
• Hester R, Garavan H. Kayan aikin jijiyoyin da ke haifar da ɓarnatar da ma'anar ƙwayoyi a cikin masu amfani da maganin cocaine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2009; 93: 270 – 277. [PubMed]
• Ikemoto S. Brain yana ba da ladan wucewa na mesolimbic dopamine: ka'idar neurobiological. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2010; 35: 129 – 150. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Ilinsky I, Jouandet M, Goldman-Rakic ​​P. Tsarin tsarin nigrothalamocortical a cikin biri rhesus. J Comp Neurol. 1985; 236: 315 – 330. [PubMed]
• Johnson P, Kenny P. Dopamine masu karɓar D2 a jaraba-kamar lalatawar lada da tilasta tilasta ci a cikin berayen. Nat Neurosci. 2010; 13: 635 – 641. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Tsarin Kalivas P. Glutamate a cikin jaraba na hodar Iblis. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2004; 4: 23 – 29. [PubMed]
• Kalivas P. Maganin glutamate homeostasis na jaraba. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009; 10: 561 – 572. [PubMed]
• Kelly C, Zuo X, Gotimer K, Cox C, Lynch L, Brock D, Imperati D, Garavan H, Rotrosen J, Castellanos F, Milham M. Rage shaƙatar hutu ta hanyar sadarwa a cikin jaraba ta cocaine. Biol Psychiatry. 2011; 69: 684 – 692. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Kelly R, Strick P. Macro-architecture na basal ganglia madaukai tare da ƙwayar cerebral cortex: amfani da ƙwaƙwalwar rabies don bayyana da'irorin multisynaptik. Pro Bra Bra Res. 2004; 143 [PubMed]
• King G, Ernst T, Deng W, Stenger A, Gonzales R, Nakama H, Canjin Canjin kwakwalwar kwakwalwa yayin haɗin visuomotor a cikin masu amfani da ƙwayar cannabis na yau da kullun: dangantaka da matakan cortisol. J Neurosci. 2011; 31: 17923 – 17931. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Koob G. Hanyoyin inganta ƙwayoyin cuta. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1992; 654: 171 – 191. [PubMed]
• Koob G, Le Moal M. Addiction da ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa. Annu Rev Psychol. 2008; 59: 29 – 53. [PubMed]
• Kullmann S, Heni M, Veit R, Ketterer C, Schick F, Häring H, Fritsche A, Preissl H. Kwakwalwar obese: haɗin ƙirar jikin mutum da ƙwarewar insulin tare da hutawa na ayyukan cibiyar sadarwa. Hum Brain Mapp. 2012; 33: 1052 – 1061. [PubMed]
• Künzle H. Binciken tsinkaye daga sutturar motsi na farko zuwa putamen da sauran sassa na basal ganglia. Nazarin autoradiographic a cikin Macaca fascicularis. Brain Res. 1975; 88: 195 – 209. [PubMed]
• Künzle H. Gabatarwa daga asalin somatosensory cortex zuwa basal ganglia da thalamus a cikin biri. Exp Brain Res. 1977; 30: 481 – 492. [PubMed]
• Künzle H, Akert K. Sakamakon haɗin gwiwa na cortical, yanki na 8 (filin gani ido na gaban) a cikin Macaca fascicularis. Juyowar rai ta amfani da dabarar autoradiographic. J Comp Neurol. 1977; 173: 147 – 164. [PubMed]
• Lee B, London E, Poldrack R, Farahi J, Nacca A, Monterosso J, Mumford J, Bokarius A, Dahlbom M, Mukherjee J, Bilder R, Brody A, Mandelkern M. Striatal dopamine d2 / d3 mai karɓar rashi yana raguwa a cikin methamphetamine dogaro kuma an danganta shi da sha'awar rayuwa. J Neurosci. 2009; 29: 14734 – 14740. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Leland D, Arce E, Miller D, Paulus M. Fuskar ciki da kuma fa'idoji game da tsinkayar tsinkaye akan hanawar amsa abubuwa a cikin mutane masu dogaro da kai. Biol Psychiatry. 2008; 63: 184 – 190. [PubMed]
• Lenoir M, Serre F, Cantin L, Ahmed S. Jin daɗin daɗaɗɗa ya wuce ladar koko. Matso ɗaya. 2007; 2: e698. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Li C, Huang C, Yan P, Bhagwagar Z, Milivojevic V, Sinha R. Tsarin daidaiton ikon sarrafawa yayin dakatar da siginar siginar a cikin maza masu maye. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008; 33: 1798 – 1806. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Li C, Morgan P, Matuskey D, Abdelghany O, Luo X, Chang J, Rounsaville B, Ding Y, Malison R. Alamar nazarin halittu na tasirin ƙwayar cuta mai narkewa a cikin inganta magungunan hana ƙwaƙwalwa a cikin marasa lafiya da ke da maganin koko. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2010; 107: 14455 – 14459. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Liu J, Liang J, Qin W, Tian J, Yuan K, Bai L, Zhang Y, Wang W, Wang Y, Li Q, Zhao L, Lu L, von Deneen K, Liu Y, Zinariya M. Tsarin aikin haɗin gwiwa cikin masu amfani da tabar heroin na kullum: nazarin FMRI. Leturo Neurosci. 2009; 460: 72 – 77. [PubMed]
• Lock J, Garrett A, Beenhakker J, Reiss A. brainarƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa yayin aiki mai ƙaddamar da amsawa a cikin yanayin cin abinci na matasa. Am J mahaukacin tabin hankali. 2011; 168: 55 – 64. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Lüscher C, Malenka R. Magungunan ƙwayar cuta ta gurɓacewar ƙwayar cuta a cikin jaraba: daga canje-canjen ƙwayoyin cuta zuwa sake fasalin kewaye. Neuron. 2011; 69: 650 – 663. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Ma N, Liu Y, Fu X, Li N, Wang C, Zhang H, Qian R, Xu H, Hu X, Zhang D. Baƙuwa kwakwalwa ta al'ada-yanayin hanyar sadarwa a cikin masu shan kwayoyi. Matso ɗaya. 2011; 6: e16560. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Ma N, Liu Y, Li N, Wang C, Zhang H, Jiang X, Xu H, Fu X, Hu X, Zhang D. Addiction suna da sauyawa a cikin haɗin kwakwalwar hutu. Neuroimage. 2010: 738 – 744. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Margulies D, Kelly A, Uddin L, Biswal B, Castellanos F, Milham M. ppingaukaka ayyukan haɗin gwiwar murfin ciki. Neuroimage. 2007; 37: 579 – 588. [PubMed]
• Middleton F, Strick P. Basal-ganglia 'tsinkaya' zuwa ga pre ቅድመal cortex na primate. Cereb Cortex. 2002; 12: 926 – 935. [PubMed]
• Minzenberg M, Yoon J, Carter C. Modafinil modulation na cibiyar sadarwar yanayin tsoho. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 215: 23 – 31. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Moeller F, Steinberg J, Schmitz J, Ma L, Liu S, Kjome K, Rathnayaka N, Kramer L, Narayana P. Yin aiki da ƙwaƙwalwar fMRI a cikin abubuwan da ake dogaro da koko: Associationungiyar tare da mayar da martani na jiyya. Psych Res Neuroimaging. 2010; 181: 174 – 182. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Norgren R, Hajnal A, Mungarndee S. Gustatory sakamako da kuma nucleus accumbens. Fuskar Behav. 2006; 89: 531 – 535. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Nummenmaa L, Hirvonen J, Hannukainen J, Immonen H, Lindroos M, Salminen P, Nuutila P. Dorsal striatum tare da haɗin guntun haɗinsa wanda ke haifar da sakamako na ƙarancin ƙima a cikin kiba. Matso ɗaya. 2012; 7: e31089. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Ogawa S, Lee TM, Kay AR, Tank DW. Hoto na Magnetic resonance hoto tare da bambanci dogaro da oxygenation na jini. Proc Nat Acad Sci US A. 1990; 87: 9868 – 9872. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Padula C, Schweinsburg A, Tapert S. Spatial mai aiki da ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya da hulɗar fMRI a cikin masu amfani da marijuana masu kauracewa. Add Psychol Addict Behav. 2007; 21: 478 – 487. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Paulus M, Hozack N, Frank L, Brown G, Schuckit M. Yanke shawara ta batutuwan da suka dogara da methamphetamine yana da alaƙa da raguwar ƙuduri-sassauci a cikin aikin gabatarwa da ƙaddamar da parietal. Biol Psychiatry. 2003; 53: 65 – 74. [PubMed]
• Paulus M, Hozack N, Zauscher B, Frank L, Brown G, Braff D, Schuckit M. Behavioral da hujjoji na neuroimaging na shawo kan matsalar rashin aikin yi a cikin abubuwanda suka dogara da methamphetamine. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2002; 20: 53 – 63. [PubMed]
• Paulus M, Tapert S, Schuckit M. Tsarin kunnawa na karkatar da batutuwa masu dogaro da kai yayin yanke hukunci game da koma-baya. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005; 62: 761 – 768. [PubMed]
• Phan K, Wager T, Taylor S, Liberzon I. neuroarfafawar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa na motsin rai: ƙididdigar-meta na nazarin kunnawa na motsa rai a cikin PET da fMRI. Neuroimage. 2002; 16: 331 – 348. [PubMed]
• Postuma R, Dagher A. Basal ganglia aikin haɗin gwiwa wanda ya danganta da ƙididdigar samfurin meta na 126 positron emmoum tomography da kuma aikin buga maganadisu na maganadisu. Cereb Cortex. 2006; 16: 1508 – 1521. [PubMed]
• Powell E, Leman R. Haɗin haɗin tsokoki. Brain Res. 1976; 105: 389 – 403. [PubMed]
• Rolls E. Cortex orbitofrontal da lada. Cereb Cortex. 2000; 10: 284 – 294. [PubMed]
• Rothemund Y, Preuschhof C, Bohner G, Bauknecht H, Klingebiel R, Flor H, Klapp B. Bambancin gwagwarmayar tashin hankali ta hanyar kuzarin abinci mai gani sosai a cikin mutane masu girman kai. Neuroimage. 2007; 37: 410 – 421. [PubMed]
• Rzepecki-Smith C, Meda S, Calhoun V, Stevens M, Jafri M, Astur R, Pearlson G. Rushewa a cikin haɗin cibiyar sadarwa na aiki yayin tuki mai maye. Alkalin Clin Exp Res. 2010; 34: 479 – 487. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Salo R, Ursu S, Buonocore M, Leamon M, Carter C. Rashin aikin Prefrontal Cortical Function da Rashin Tsarin Kulawa da Tsinkaye a cikin Zagi na Mathamphetamine Abusers: Nazarin Tasirin Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Biol Psychiatry 2009 [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Schienle A, Schäfer A, Hermann A, Vaitl D. Rashin cin abinci na Binge: sakamako ladan hankali da kunna kwakwalwa ga hotunan abinci. Biol Psychiatry. 2009; 65: 654 – 661. [PubMed]
• Selemon L, Goldman-Rakic ​​P. Longpoudinal topography and interdigitation of corticostriatal tsinkaya a cikin rhesus biri. J Neurosci. 1985; 5: 776 – 794. [PubMed]
• Silveri M, Rogowska J, McCaffrey A, Yurgelun-Todd D. Matasa a Hadarin don Cin Hancin Alkalai Nuna Canjin Canji a gaban Layi Yayin Aikin Stroop. Alkalin Clin Exp Res. 2011; 35: 218 – 228. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Sotak B, Hnasko T, Robinson S, Kremer E, Palmiter R. Dysregulation na nuna alamar dopamine a cikin ƙwaƙwalwar dorsal yana hana ciyarwa. Brain Res. 2005; 1061: 88 – 96. [PubMed]
• Stice E, Spoor S, Bohon C, D.ananan D. Rashin aiki tsakanin kiba da taɓarɓarewar martani ga abinci shine ke kawo sauƙin TaqIA A1 allele. Kimiyya. 2008; 322: 449 – 452. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Stice E, Yokum S, Burger K, Epstein L, D.aramin D. Matasa masu haɗarin kiba suna nuna babban yunƙurin yankuna na yanki da yankuna na abinci zuwa abinci. J Neurosci. 2011; 31: 4360 – 4366. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Stoeckel L, Weller R, Cook Er, Twieg D, Knowlton R, Cox J. Tsarin-lada mai cike da ladabi a cikin mata masu kiba a cikin hotunan abinci mai-adadin kuzari. Neuroimage. 2008; 41: 636 – 647. [PubMed]
• Stokes P, Egerton A, Watson B, Reid A, Lappin J, Howes O, Nutt D, Lingford-Hughes A. Tarihin amfani da maganin cannabis ba shi da alaƙa da sauye-sauye a cikin wadatar mai riƙe da dastamine D2 / D3 mai karɓa. J Psychopharmacol. 2012; 26: 144 – 149. [PubMed]
• Tapert S, Schweinsburg A, Drummond S, Paulus M, Brown S, Yang T, Frank L. Ayyukan MRI na hana inhibitory a cikin masu amfani da marijuana masu lalata. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 194: 173 – 183. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Tomasi D, Ernst T, Caparelli E, Chang L. Tsarin yanke ƙauna na yau da kullun yayin ƙwaƙwalwar aiki da ɗawainiyar kulawa na gani: Nazarin fMRI na cikin ciki a 4 Tesla. Hum Brain Mapp. 2006; 27: 694 – 705. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Tomasi D, Goldstein R, Telang F, Maloney T, Alia-Klein N, Caparelli E, Volkow N. Masu cin zarafin ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa suna da rushewa a cikin tsarin kunna kwakwalwa don aiki mai ƙwaƙwalwa. Brain Res. 2007a; 1171: 83 – 92. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Tomasi D, Goldstein R, Telang F, Maloney T, Alia-Klein N, Caparelli E, Volkow N. Thalamocortical lalata a cikin cin zarafin barasa: abubuwan da ke haifar da hankali da tsinkaye. Psych Res Neuroimaging. 2007b; 155: 189 – 201. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Tomasi D, kungiyar Volkow N. tsakanin Hubungiyoyin Haɗin Wurin Haɗi da Cibiyoyin Hancin Brain. Cereb Cortex. 2011; 21: 2003 – 2013. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Tomasi D, Volkow N, Wang G, Wang R, Telang F, Caparelli E, Wong C, Jayne M, Fowler J. Methylphenidate yana haɓaka kunnawar kwakwalwa da kuma ba da amsa ga kulawa da gani da kuma aiki da ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya a cikin sarrafawar lafiya. Neuroimage. 2011; 54: 3101 – 3110. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Tomasi D, Volkow N, Wang R, Carrillo J, Maloney T, Alia-Klein N, Woicik P, Telang F, Goldstein R. Rashin haɗin haɗin aiki tare da dopaminergic midbrain a cikin cin zarafin hocaine. Matso ɗaya. 2010; 5: e10815. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Tomasi D, Volkow N, Wang R, Telang F, Wang G, Chang L, Ernst T, Fowler J. Dopamine jigilar kayayyaki a cikin Striatum Correlate tare da Budewa a cikin Tsarin Tsararren Yanayin Yanayin a yayin Kula da Visuospatial. PLOS DAYA. 2009a; 4: e6102. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Tomasi D, Wang G, Wang R, Backus W, Geliebter A, Telang F, Jayne M, Wong C, Fowler J, Volkow N. ofungiyar yawan ƙwaƙwalwar jiki da kunnawar kwakwalwa yayin nesa na ciki: abubuwan da ke haifar da kiba. PLOS DAYA. 2009b; 4: e6847. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Upadhyay J, Maleki N, Potter J, Elman I, Rudrauf D, Knudsen J, Wallin D, Pendse G, McDonald L, Griffin M, Anderson J, Nutile L, Renshaw P, Weiss R, Becerra L, Borsook D. Alterations in Tsarin kwakwalwa da haɗin haɓakar aiki a cikin marasa lafiya na opioid-dogara marasa lafiya. Kwakwalwa 2010; 133: 2098 – 2114. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Urban N, Slifstein M, Thompson J, Xu X, Girgis R, Raheja S, Haney M, Abi-Dargham A. sakin Dopamine a cikin masu amfani da maganin cannabis mai rauni: wani [(11) c] raclopride positron watsi tomography. Biol Psychiatry. 2012; 71: 677 – 683. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Baler R. Neuroscience. Tsaya ko a daina? Kimiyya. 2012; 335: 546 – 548. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Chang L, Wang G, Fowler J, Ding Y, Sedler M, Logan J, Franceschi D, Gatley J, Hitzemann R, Gifford A, Wong C, Pappas N. levelarancin mai kwakwalwa dopamine d (2) masu karɓa a cikin masu cin zarafin methamphetamine: haɗuwa tare da metabolism a cikin orrtitofrontal bawo. Am J mahaukacin tabin hankali. 2001a; 158: 2015 – 2021. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Chang L, Wang GJ, Fowler J, Franceschi D, Sedler M, Gatley S, Miller E, Hitzemann R, Ding YS, Logan J. Loss na masu safarar dopamine a cikin masu zagin methamphetamine da aka lalata tare da nisantar tsauraran matakai. J Neurosci. 2001b; 21: 9414 – 9418. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Ding Y, Fowler J, Wang G. jaraba ta Cocaine: alaƙar da aka samo daga nazarin hoto tare da PET. J Addict Dis. 1996a; 15: 55 – 71. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Fowler J. Addiction, cuta ce ta tilastawa da tuki: saka hannu na cocex na orbitofrontal. Cereb Cortex. 2000; 10: 318 – 325. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Fowler J, Wang G. brainan kwakwalwar ɗan adam mai ban sha'awa: basira daga nazarin hoto. J Clin Zuba jari. 2003a; 111: 1444 – 1451. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Fowler J, Wang G, Telang F, Logan J, Jayne M, Ma Y, Pradhan K, Wong C, Swanson J. Gudanar da hankali game da sha'awar miyagun ƙwayoyi yana hana yankuna na lada a cikin masu lalata. Neuroimage. 2010a; 49: 2536 – 2543. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Gillespie H, Mullani N, Tancredi L, Grant C, Valentine A, Hollister L. Brain glucose metabolism a cikin masu amfani da marijuana na kullum yayin asha da kuma lokacin shan marijuana. Res of Psychiatry Res. 1996b; 67: 29 – 38. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Li T. The neuroscience of buri. Nat Neurosci. 2005; 8: 1429 – 1430. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Tomasi D, Wang G, Fowler J, Telang F, Goldstein R, Alia-Klein N, Wong C. Rage metabolism a cikin kwakwalwa "cibiyoyin sadarwa" biyo bayan bayyanar hodar Iblis a cikin cin zarafin mata. PLoS Daya. 2011a; 6: e16573. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Baler R. Reward, dopamine da kuma kula da abincin abinci: abubuwan dake haifar da kiba. Trends Cogn Sci. 2011b; 15: 37 – 46. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Begleiter H, Porjesz B, Fowler J, Telang F, Wong C, Ma Y, Logan J, Goldstein R, Alexoff D, Thanos P. Babban matakan masu karɓa na Dopamine D2 a cikin mambobin mambobi na iyalan giya: zai yiwu dalilai masu kariya. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006; 63: 999 – 1008. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, Logan J, Gatley S, Hitzemann R, Chen A, Dewey S, Pappas N. Rage ƙararrakin dopaminergic mai ƙarfi a cikin batutuwa masu dogaro da koko. Yanayi. 1997a; 386: 830 – 833. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, Logan J, Gatley S, MacGregor R, Schlyer D, Hitzemann R, Wolf A. Ana auna sauye-sauye masu dangantaka da shekaru a cikin masu karɓar D2 na dopamine tare da 11C-raclopride da 18F-N-methylspiroperidol. Res of Psychiatry Res. 1996c; 67: 11 – 16. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, Logan J, Gatley S, Wong C, Hitzemann R, Pappas N. Sakamakon tasirin psychostimulants a cikin dan adam yana da alaƙa da haɓaka dopamine na kwakwalwa da kuma kasancewar masu karɓar D (2). J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1999; 291: 409 – 415. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, Logan J, Jayne M, Franceschi D, Wong C, Gatley S, Gifford A, Ding Y, Pappas N. "Nonhedonic" motsawar abinci a cikin mutane ya hada da dopamine a cikin maganin tashin hankali da methylphenidate ya haɓaka wannan sakamako. Synapse. 2002; 44: 175 – 180. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, Telang F. lainƙirarin da'irorin jijiyoyi a cikin jaraba da kuma kiba: shaidar tsarin ilimin cuta. Filin Sakawa R Soc London B Biol Sci. 2008a; 363: 3191 – 3200. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, Tomasi D. Addiction circuitry a kwakwalwar mutum Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2012a; 52: 321 – 336. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, Tomasi D, Baler R. Sakamakon Abinci da Magunguna: An mamaye da'irori a cikin Kiba da ictionan Adam. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2012b doi: 10.1007 / 7854_2011_169. Epub gaba na bugawa. [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Fowler J, Tomasi D, Telang F. Addiction: bayan dopamine sakamakon lada. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2011c; 108: 15037 – 15042. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Ma Y, Fowler J, Wong C, Ding Y, Hitzemann R, Swanson J, Kalivas P. Yin aiki da orbital da medial prertal cortex ta methylphenidate a cikin abubuwan da ake amfani da ƙwaƙwalwar cocaine amma ba cikin iko ba: dacewar jaraba. J Neurosci. 1995; 25: 3932 – 3939. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Maynard L, Jayne M, Fowler J, Zhu W, Logan J, Gatley S, Ding Y, Wong C, Pappas N. Brain dopamine yana da alaƙa da halayen cin abinci a cikin mutane. Int J Ku Rasa Damuwa. 2003b; 33: 136 – 142. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Telang F, Fowler J, Logan J, Jayne M, Ma Y, Pradhan K, Wong C. Babban raguwa a cikin sakin dopamine a cikin shaye-shaye a cikin maye: yiwuwar shiga orbitofrontal shiga. J Neurosci. 2007; 27: 12700 – 12706. [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Telang F, Fowler J, Thanos P, Logan J, Alexoff D, Ding Y, Wong C, Ma Y, Pradhan K. low dopamine striatal D2 masu karɓa suna da alaƙa da pre ቅድመal metabolism a cikin abubuwan da suka tsufa . Neuroimage. 2008b; 42: 1537 – 1543. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow N, Wang G, Tomasi D, Telang F, Fowler J, Pradhan K, Jayne M, Logan J, Goldstein R, Alia-Klein N, Wong C. Methylphenidate yana kwantar da hanin kwakwalwa ta hanyar lalata kwakwalwa bayan cuku-cacan da aka nuna a cikin cin zarafin cocaine. PLOS DAYA. 2010b; 5: e11509. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Hitzemann R, Logan J, Schlyer DJ, Dewey SL, Wolf AP. Rage yawan karɓa na dopamine D2 yana da alaƙa da rage yawan ƙwayar gaban hancin a cikin cin zarafin barasa. Synapse. 1993; 14: 169 – 177. [PubMed]
• Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fischman MW, Foltin RW, Fowler JS, Abumrad NN, Vitkun S, Logan J, Gatley SJ, Pappas N, Hitzemann R, Shea CE. Dangantaka tsakanin tasirin maganin cocaine da mazaunin dopamine. Yanayi. 1997b; 386: 827 – 830. [PubMed]
• Vollstädt-Klein S, Hermann D, Rabinstein J, Wichert S, Klein O, Ende G, Mann K. asedara yawan gwagwarmayar ACC a yayin aikin ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa a cikin barasa-dogara da barasa mai yawa. Alkalin Clin Exp Res. 2010a; 34: 771 – 776. [PubMed]
• Vollstädt-Klein S, Wichert S, Rabinstein J, Bühler M, Klein O, Ende G, Hermann D, Mann K. Abubuwan farko, al'ada da tilasta amfani da giya ana bayyana su ta hanyar juye juye na sarrafawa daga iska zuwa layin dorsal. Addua. 2010b; 105: 1741 – 1749. [PubMed]
• Wager T, Jonides J, Karatun S. Neuroimaging karatu na maida hankali: nazari na meta. Neuroimage. 2004; 22: 1679 – 1693. [PubMed]
• Wallner-Liebmann S, Koschutnig K, Reishofer G, Sorantin E, Blaschitz B, Kruschitz R, Unterrainer H, Gasser R, Freytag F, Bauer-Denk C, Schienle A, Schäfer A, Mangge H. Insulin da aikin hippocampus yayin mayar da martani hotunan abinci mai kalori mai nauyi a cikin nauyi na yau da kullun da kuma masu karamin karfi. Kiba. 2010; 18: 1552 – 1557. [PubMed]
• Wanat M, Willuhn I, Clark J, Phillips P. Phasic dopamine saki a cikin halayen ci da shan kwayoyi. Abubuwan Cutar Magunguna ta Curr Rev. 2009; 2: 195 – 213. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Wang G, Geliebter A, Volkow N, Telang F, Logan J, Jayne M, Galanti K, Selig P, Han H, Zhu W, Wong C, Fowler J. Ingantaccen damuwar dopamine mai fitarwa yayin tashin abinci a cikin matsalar yawan cin abinci. Kiba. 2011a; 19: 1601 – 1608. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Wang G, Smith L, Volkow N, Telang F, Logan J, Tomasi D, Wong C, Hoffman W, Jayne M, Alia-Klein N, Thanos P, Fowler J. Rage aikin dopamine ya annabta sake dawowa cikin cin zarafin methamphetamine. Mol Psychiatry. 2011b doi: 10.1038 / mp.2011.86. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Cross Ref]
• Wang G, Volkow N, Canjin L, Miller E, Sedler M, Hitzemann R, Zhu W, Logan J, Ma Y, Fowler J. Sake dawo da haɓaka ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwa a cikin masu lalata methamphetamine bayan shan tsawa. Am J mahaukacin tabin hankali. 2004; 161: 242 – 248. [PubMed]
• Wang G, Volkow N, Logan J, Pappas N, Wong C, Zhu W, Netusil N, Fowler J. Brain dopamine da kiba. Lancet. 2001; 357: 354 – 357. [PubMed]
• Wang G, Volkow N, Telang F, Jayne M, Ma Y, Pradhan K, Zhu W, Wong C, Thanos P, Geliebter A, Biegon A, Fowler J. Shaida kan bambance-bambancen jinsi a cikin ikon hana kwakwalwa kunnawa kwakwalwa ta abinci. kuzari. Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2009; 106: 1249 – 1254. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Wilcox C, Teshiba T, Merideth F, Ling J, Mayer A. Ingantaccen ma'anar sake kunna aiki da haɓaka aiki na gaba-gaba cikin rikicewar amfani da ƙwayar cuta. Alan Ruwa na Dogaro. 2011; 115: 137 – 144. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Wilczak N, De Bleser P, Luiten P, Geerts A, Teelken A, De Keyser J. Insulin-like development factor II masu karɓa na II a cikin kwakwalwar ɗan adam da kuma rashi a cikin ƙwaryar astrogliotic a cikin mahara sclerosis. Brain Res. 2000; 863: 282 – 288. [PubMed]
• Williams L, Adam C, Mercer J, Moar K, Slater D, mafarauci L, Findlay P, Hoggard N. Leptin mai karɓar raayi da neuropeptide Y gene bayyana a cikin kwakwalwar tunkiya. J Neuroendocrinol. 1999; 11: 165 – 169. [PubMed]
• Ayyukan hikima R. na nigrostriatal –ba wai kawai mesocorticolimbic – dopamine cikin sakamako da jaraba. Trends Neurosci. 2009; 32: 517 – 524. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
• Wittmann B, Schott B, Guderian S, Frey J, Heinze H, Düzel E. FMarfafawar FMRI da ke da tasirin dopaminergic midbrain yana da alaƙa da haɓakar haɓakar ƙwaƙwalwar hippocampus-dogaro na dogon lokaci. Neuron. 2005; 45: 459 – 467. [PubMed]
• Goge J, Schlagenhauf F, Kienast T, Wüstenberg T, Bermpohl F, Kahnt T, Beck A, Ströhle A, Juckel G, Knutson B, Heinz A. Rage aikin lada yana daidaitawa da sha'awar giya a cikin maye. Neuroimage. 2007; 35: 787 – 794. [PubMed]
• Yeterian E, Van Hoesen G. Tsinkaya mai rikodin cortico-biri a cikin rhesus biri: kungiyar wasu mahaɗan cortico-caudate. Brain Res. 1978; 139: 43 – 63. [PubMed]
• Yoon H, Chung J, Oh J, Min H, Kim D, Cheon Y, Joe K, Kim Y, Cho Z. Bambancin kunnawa ayyukan ƙwaƙwalwar ajiyar fuskoki a cikin marasa lafiya masu dogaro da giya idan aka kwatanta da batutuwa masu lafiya: nazarin fMRI. Leturo Neurosci. 2009; 450: 311 – 316. [PubMed]
• Zweifel L, Parker J, Lobb C, Ruwan ruwa A, Wall V, Fadok J, Darvas M, Kim M, Mizumori S, Paladini C, Phillips P, Palmiter R. Rushewar NMDAR-fashe fashewa ta hanyar dopamine neurons yana ba da zaɓi mai mahimmanci na hali mai dogaro dosamine Proc Natl Acad Sci US A. 2009; 106: 7281 – 7288. [PMC free article] [PubMed]