Hanyoyin Rikici a kan La'akari da Harkokin Ciniki (2019)

Abstract

Abubuwan batsa ba wani abu ne wanda aka kulle zuwa ƙananan ƙungiyoyi ko mutane na sirri ba. Maimakon haka, ya cika al'adun zamani, ciki har da yanayin aiki. Dangane da yanayin batsa, muna nazarin yadda yadda ake kallon batsa ya shafi halin rashin haɓaka a aiki. Yin amfani da bayanan bincike daga samfurin da ke kusa da samfurin samfurin kasa game da tsarin zamantakewar al'umma, zamu sami daidaitattun alaƙa tsakanin kallon batsa da kuma dabi'a marasa tunani. Bayan haka munyi gwaji don samar da shaidar tabbatarwa. Sakamakon ya tabbatar da binciken-cinye batsa ya sa mutane su zama marasa kirki. Mun gano cewa wannan dangantaka tana da matsakaici ta hanyar halin kirki da yawa da ke tattare da lalata wasu saboda kallon batsa. A haɗuwa, sakamakonmu yana nuna cewa zabar cinye batsa ta haifar da mutane don yin rashin haɓaka. Saboda halin halayyar ma'aikata marar haɓaka an haɗa shi da yawancin kungiyoyi na kungiyoyi wadanda suka hada da zamba, rikici, da kuma wasu ayyukan kai-tsaye, sakamakonmu yana da tasiri ga yawancin kungiyoyin jama'a.

Jaridar Kasuwancin Kasuwanci (2019): 1-18.

Mecham, Nathan W., Melissa F. Lewis-Western, da David A. Wood.

keywords: Batsa Ethics Halin rashin daidaito Dehumanization 

Gabatarwa

Batsa ba sabon abu bane, amma amfani dashi ya karu sosai a cikin shekaru 20 da suka gabata (misali, Price et al. ). A sakamakon haka, wani aikin da aka ƙayyade da farko ga yara maza da ƙananan manya sun zama mafi mahimmanci har ma a cikin saitunan kasuwanci. An kiyasta cewa 40 miliyan Amirkawa a kai a kai ziyarci shafukan yanar gizo (Ropelato ). Wani bincike na 2018 ya gano cewa kusan 60% na masu sauraro suna kallon batsa a aikin, tare da rabi kallon batsa a kowane wata kuma 10% duba shi a kullum (McDonald ). Tabbas, kashi 70% na duk cinikin batsa na intanet yana faruwa tsakanin awanni 9 na safe da 5 na yamma, lokacin da yawancin mutane zasu iya aiki (Conlin ; Sifofin alkawari ). Wani labarin na Bloomberg a kwanan nan ya tabbatar da cewa "kallon kallo a ofishin yana da mahimmanci" (Suddath ). Bugu da ƙari, a cikin kididdigar, akwai alamun misalai masu yawa na cin batsa a aikin.1 Misali:

A cikin shekaru 5 da suka gabata, SEC OIG (Ofishin Sufeto Janar) ya tabbatar da cewa ma’aikatan SEC 33 da ko ‘yan kwangila sun keta dokoki da manufofin Hukumar, da kuma Ka’idojin Da’a na Gwamnati baki daya, ta hanyar kallon hotunan batsa, bayyanannen jima’i ko nuna sha’awa hotuna masu amfani da kayan komputa na gwamnati da lokacin aiki (CNN ).

Tsawon shekaru 2, wani babban jami'i a wani kamfanin hada-hadar kudi na New England ya kan zo wurin aiki kowace safiya, ya gaishe da sakataren nasa, sannan ya rufe kofar dakinsa, mai taga a bayansa. Kamar aikin agogo, ya zana makafin kuma ya karkata allon kwamfutarsa ​​zuwa gare shi don haka - idan kowa ya shigo ba zato ba tsammani - ba za su iya faɗin abin da yake yi ba. Na 6 h na gaba, kuma wani lokacin har takwas, ya ci gaba da yawo cikin Intanet don mafi yawan wuraren batsa da zai iya samu (Conlin ).

Ta amfani da Dokar 'Yancin Bayanai, Kamfanin 4 I-Team ya samu takardun bincike daga hukumomin tarayya goma sha tara don tattara samfurin abubuwan da ma'aikata suka yi amfani da su na yau da kullum. Samun samfurin ya bayyana akalla 50 lokuta na manyan batutuwa ko kuma batsa masu laifi wanda ke kallo a waɗannan hukumomin 12 tun daga 2015, ciki harda da dama da ma'aikata suka amince da ciyar da manyan ayyuka na kwanakin aiki na hawan kan batsa (NBC ).

A farkon wannan shekarar wani ma'aikaci a Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta Amurka ya kama, kusan a zahiri, tare da wando ƙasa. Wani wakili na musamman daga Ofishin Sufeto Janar na EPA ya bayyana a ofishin babban ma'aikacin don gano dalilin da ya sa yake adana hotunan batsa a kan sabobin hanyar sadarwar. Wakilin ya shiga cikin mutumin - kun gane shi - kallon batsa. Lokacin da aka danna shi, ma'aikacin ya yarda cewa yana kallon shafuka masu ban sha'awa na 2 zuwa 6 a kowace ranar aiki tun daga 2010 (Suddath ).

Wadannan kididdiga da labarun labaran sun nuna cewa tasirin batsa a aiki yana da matsala. Duk da yake manajan ya kamata ya firgita saboda lokacin da albarkatun da aka lalace sakamakon cin batsa a aiki (tare da wasu ƙididdigar asarar kamfanoni na Amurka kamar yadda dala biliyan 16.9 a kowace shekara2), yin amfani da batsa yana iya zama mafi matsala idan ta rinjayi wasu al'amuran aiki. Musamman, hotunan batsa na iya rinjayar halayen ma'aikata don nuna rashin hankali. Sakamakon haka, zamu binciki dangantakar da ke tsakanin kallon batsa da rashin dabi'a.

Muna samar da samfurin yadda batsa ke haifar da halayyar rashin daidaito bisa tushen bincike na baya. Binciken na farko ya nuna hanyoyi guda biyu don yin amfani da batsa don haɓaka hali marar kyau. Na farko, bincike ya gano cewa kallon batsa yana ƙara jinkirta jinkiri (Lauya ; Negash et al. ; Van den Bergh et al. ; Wilson da Daly ). Mutanen da ke da karfin gaske don samun rangwame masu yawa ga sakamakon da ake zuwa yanzu suna son yin watsi da amfanin da ake amfani da su a nan gaba don amfanin kuɗi kaɗan. An haɗu da rangwame da yawa a rage yawan karfin kai da kuma karuwar hali mai ban sha'awa (Fawcett et al. ), wanda ya haɓaka hali marar kyau (Lee et al. ). Saboda haka, kara yawan karuwar farashi daga tasirin batsa ana sa ran ƙara yawan dabi'a.

Na biyu, bincike na farko ya gano cewa haɓaka dabi'a yana ƙaruwa hali (misali, Detert et al. ; Gabbiadini et al. ). Bandura's () Misalin halin kirkirar kirkira ya hada da abubuwa takwas3 wanda ke taimakawa wajen tafiyar da halin kirki. Muna mayar da martani game da dayawar dabara4-Ace binciken da aka yi a baya ya nuna cewa hotunan batsa yana ƙaruwa da kallon mai kallo don cin mutuncin wasu (Fagan ; Bitrus da Valkenburg ; Schneider ). Wato, idan hotunan batsa yana kara yawan halayyar dabi'un, to, zalunci shine ƙirar hanya. Sabili da haka, muna sa ran cewa hotunan batsa zai kara yawan hali ba tare da haɓaka ba idan ya kara yawan ma'aikata 'yunkurin lalata wasu. A taƙaice, muna tsammanin kallon hotunan batsa don a hade da halayyar rashin gaskiya kuma don wannan sakamako ya nuna daga ƙãrawa a ragi, jinkirta, ko duka biyu.

Don nazarin dangantakar dake tsakanin batsa da cin hanci da rashawa, zamu yi amfani da hanyoyi guda biyu, bincike da gwaji, waɗanda ke da ƙarfin karfi da rashin ƙarfi. Binciken ya ba mu damar gwada ko abubuwan da ke faruwa a waje ba su da wani dakin gwaje-gwaje. Wannan gwajin ya samar da hujjoji da hujjoji a kan abubuwan da ke mahimmanci (watau jinkirtawa da jinkirtawa). Tare, sakamakon da ya dace a cikin dukkanin hanyoyi na samar da tabbaci mai karfi cewa sakamakon su duka suna da damuwa da kuma cikakkun bayanai.

Na farko, muna gudanar da wani binciken ta yin amfani da samfurin samfurin na al'ummar kasar Amurka a cikin dimokuradiyya. A cikin wannan samfurin 1083 US manya, mun ga cewa 44% na rahoton samfurin ba su taba kallon batsa ba, rahoton 24% ba da gani ba, 22% wani lokaci duba shi, kuma 6% da 4% suna duban shi akai-akai kuma akai-akai, bi da bi . Mun kirkiro yanayin da ya shafi mahalarta yadda za su kasance da zalunci don cin mutuncin tsarin kamfani don amfani na mutum (watau, yadda za su iya yin ƙarya don samun kuɗi). Mun sami muhimmiyar haɓaka tsakanin halayyar batsa da kuma shirye-shirye don yin ha'inci (watau, karya don samun kuɗi). Wannan dangantaka tana da ƙarfi ga sarrafawa don yawan halaye na mutane na masu amsawa.

Na biyu, don samar da shaidar cewa sakamakonmu yana da haɗari kuma ba kawai yin tarayya da dabi'a ba kuma don bincika muhimmancin jinkirta jinkirta da haɓakawa kamar yadda za a iya yin musayar maɓamai, muna gudanar da gwaji. Don gwajinmu, muna amfani da mahalarta don kammala aikin da aka auna idan hotunan batsa ya rinjayi sha'awar aikin shirka da kuma karya game da aikin da aka yi-al'adun aikin zamantakewa guda biyu (Rodriguez) ). Don kare mahalarta kuma duk da haka karɓar bayanai da ake bukata don gwada jumlarmu, ba zamu nuna masu halartar kai tsaye a kan batsa ba, amma mun tambayi mahalarta a yanayin gwaji don tunawa da kuma cikakken bayani dasu game da batsa. Wannan hotunan hotunan da aka kunna a zukatan waɗanda suka zaba don kallon hotunan batsa kuma sun ba wadanda ba su son ganin su don kaucewa yadawa maras so. Sai muka umarci mahalarta cewa aikin su shine kallon kowane hoto na 10-min. Bidiyo ya damu, saboda haka yana ba wa mahalarta damar haɓaka bidiyo. Daga bisani mun tambayi mahalarta idan sun kalli dukkanin bidiyon kuma sun auna wanda yake kwance ta wurin rikodin ko suna kallon bidiyo ko a'a.

Sakamakon gwaji ya nuna cewa mahalarta shirka aiki (ta hanyar ba kallon bidiyon) da kuma karya game da aikin da aka yi a 21% na lokacin da suka tuna damuwarsu ta karshe da batsa kuma kawai 8% na lokacin da suke tunawa da halin da ba a bane . Don haka, kallon batsa ya karu da kwance ta hanyar 2.6 sau da yawa - sakamako mai mahimmanci da tattalin arziki. Bugu da ƙari kuma, muna jarraba masu sauƙaƙƙwa masu sauƙi guda biyu don tasirin batsa a kan halin rashin fahimta - jinkirtawa da jinkirin jinkirta. Sakamakon binciken mu na sulhuntawa yana nuna ladabi ne kawai kamar matsakanci mai mahimmanci. Hanyoyin batsa suna kara yawan masu kallo na masu kallo, wanda hakan yana kara yawan masu kallo don yin aiki da shirka da karya don amfanin mutum.

Wannan takarda yana taimaka wa wallafe-wallafen ta hanyoyi da dama. Wannan shine binciken farko, wanda muka sani, wanda ke nuna alamun batsa na batsa a kan dabi'a marar kyau. Bugu da ƙari, zamu iya gano akalla ɗaya tsari wanda batsa ya haifar da rashin haɓakawa-ta hanyar ƙaruwa da wasu. Binciken da aka yi a baya ya nuna cewa cin zarafin batsa zai kara yawan haɓakawa, amma ba mu da masaniya game da duk wata hujja da take haifarwa a wannan batu. Sabili da haka, sakamakon gwajinmu yana tallafawa daɗaɗɗo, amma zumunci marar kuskure tsakanin batsa da lalata. Wadannan sakamakon sune mahimmanci ga abubuwa da yawa na aikin ƙungiya. Na farko, Moore et al. () bayar da tabbacin cewa ma'aikata suna da haɓaka ga lalacewa ta hanyar haɓakawa da kuma sauran kayan haɓakawa yana haifar da halayyar haɓakawa marar haɓaka ciki har da ƙãra yawan haɓaka ga ƙetare da kuma sauran halin rashin kaifin kai. Hakazalika, Welsh et al. () bayar da shaida cewa ƙananan laifuffuka na dabi'un sun sa hanyar ƙetare manyan laifuffuka da ke haifar da zamba da sauran ƙyama.5 Saboda haka, ƙãra yawan amfani da batutuwa na ma'aikata na iya kara yawan haɗari da ƙwarewar halayen kai tsaye da kuma haɗarin wasu ayyukan halayyar kai da suke hana cimma nasarar manufofin.

Na biyu, saboda yawan amfani da hotunan batsa yana haifar da lalata mutum da wasu, tasirin cin zarafin jima'i ko yanayin aiki na gaba na iya ƙaruwa tare da ƙaruwa a cikin yawan amfani da hotunan batsa na ma'aikata. Wannan cutarwa ne ga kungiyoyi saboda hargitsi yana sanya wa kamfanin tsada kai tsaye (misali, daga biyan kuɗi zuwa Equungiyar Ba da Dama ga USasa ta Amurka (EEOC) da masu gabatar da ƙara, kuɗin lauya) da kuma tsaka-tsakin kaikaice dangane da ɓacewar ƙarancin aiki da sauya ma'aikata. Rahoton 2016 da EEOC na Amurka ya bayar ya kammala cewa farashi kai tsaye na ɓarnatar da aikin da aka rasa daga musgunawa ya shafi dukkan ma'aikata, ba kawai waɗanda ke da tasiri kai tsaye ba, kuma gaskiyar saƙar ta haɗa da ɓarkewar aiki, ƙaruwa da yawa, da lalata sunan kamfanin.

A ƙarshe, sakamakonmu yana da muhimmanci saboda suna nuna damuwa game da halin da ake ciki na batsa ban da halayyar rashin gaskiya. Saboda hotunan batsa yana ƙaruwa da ma'aikata don cin zarafi da wasu, yana iya haifar da wani sakamako mai kyau wanda ya haifar da haɓakawa ba tare da lalata ba. Alal misali, ƙetarewa yana haifar da nunawa (Bar-Tal ), wanda za a iya gani a yayin da aka raba wani mutum ko rukuni don hana su daga samun cigaba; tashin hankali (Greitemeyer da McLatchie ; Rudman da Mescher ), wadda za a iya nuna ta ta hanyar cin zarafin ma'aikacin wani mai aiki; da kuma rashin yarda don taimaka wa wasu (Andrighetto et al. ; Cuddy et al. ), wanda zai iya haifar da mummunar tasiri musamman a ayyukan ayyukan. Ba da mummunar tasirin batsa da muka samu a wannan binciken kuma wasu sun sami (Malamuth da Ceniti ; Willoughby et al. ), yana da muhimmanci ga harkokin kasuwanci, siyasa, da kuma wasu shugabannin suyi la'akari da muhimmancin batsa masu cin hanci da rashawa da suka haifar da cimma nasarar sakamakon ƙungiyoyi kuma su amsa daidai.

Wallafe-wallafe

Hotuna batsa ce mai mahimmanci wanda ya ƙunshi nau'o'i daban-daban. Saboda yanayi mai zurfi, mun bi Negash et al. () da kuma ayyana hotuna kamar yadda yake kallon duk wani abu na jima'i.6 A cikin shekaru 25 da suka gabata, intanet ta ƙara samun dama, iya araha, da rashin suna na batsa (Cooper et al. ). Masanin ilimin ilimin kimiyya yana magana da waɗannan matakan "injiniya guda uku" da kuma lura cewa su ne dakarun motsa jiki a bayan canje-canjen batsa saboda mutane zasu iya samun damar yin amfani da batsa daga gida ko aiki, tare da rashin sani, da kuma rashin (ko a'a) kudin (misali, Cooper ; Cooper da Griffin-Shelley ). Ba abin mamaki bane, amfani da kayan batsa ya karu kuma yana karuwa gaba daya tare da kowace sabuwar haihuwa (Price et al. ; Wright ). Rahoton sharhi masu yawa suna yin amfani da batutuwa. Alal misali, wasu sanannun cewa kusan masu amfani da 30,000 suna kallon hotunan batsa na biyu a kan intanet (CNBC ; Ropelato ) kuma wannan shafukan yanar gizo sun sami karin baƙi fiye da Netflix, Amazon, da kuma Twitter (Huffington Post ; Negash et al. ). Ƙarin tsare-tsaren mahimmanci sun nuna cewa binciken yanar gizo na bidiyo na batsa game da 13% na zirga-zirgar intanet din duniya (Ogas da Gaddam ). Ko da yake yana da wuya a kimantawa da daidaitattun yanayin da ake amfani da su a batsa, wanda zai iya cewa yana da amfani da batsa a cikin shekarun nan (misali, Ogas da Gaddam ; Farashin da al. ; Wright ).

Abubuwan da ke damuwa da batsa ba su da alaƙa da ƙananan ƙananan jama'a. Binciken binciken da aka yi kwanan nan game da hotunan batsa ya nuna cewa a mafi yawan 27% na Amirkawa tsakanin shekarun 18 da 89 sun kalli batsa (Wright et al. ) kuma yawan kuɗin da ake amfani da ita yana da mahimmanci ga matasa. Carroll et al. () bayar da rahoton cewa 87% na 'yan matasan da maza da 31% na matasan matasa sun bayyana wani nau'i na amfani da batsa. Babban amfani da batsa da kuma karuwar haɓaka ta amfani da shi sun shawo kan sha'awar ilmin kimiyya, tare da binciken da yawa na binciken sakamakon batsa.7

Yayinda takardun bincike na takarda da kuma dangantaka da tasirin batsa, wallafe-wallafe na bayar da shaida mai yawa game da yadda tasirin batsa ke tasiri kungiyoyi da al'umma gaba ɗaya, ciki har da yadda yake tasiri kasuwancin. Ba mu san kowane bincike da ke gwada yadda gwajin batsa yake tasiri ga dabi'a ba. Sauran () ya bayyana dabi'a marasa dabi'a kamar yadda duk wani aiki na ƙungiya wanda ya saba wa ka'idodin halin kirki da aka yarda da shi (al'ada). An yi amfani da wannan ma'anar rashin halayyar rashin fahimta (kuma an samo samfuri) a cikin abubuwa masu yawa (Kaptein ; Kish-Gephart et al. ; Treviño et al. ); Saboda haka, muna amfani da shi a matsayin ma'anar rashin dabi'a. A cikin wannan binciken, zamu bincika idan hotunan batsa yana tasiri game da yadda mai yanke shawara ya yi aiki da rashin hankali. Musamman ma, zamu bincika idan yin kallon batsa yana ƙaruwa ga mutum yayi aiki marar kyau, wanda muke aiki a hanyoyi biyu: (1) yin amfani da manufofin kamfanin kamfanonin (2) da kuma karya game da aiki. Wadannan suna dacewa da halin rashin aiki a cikin wurin; binciken da aka yi a kwanan nan game da labarun halin rashin aiki na aiki wanda laifin cin zarafin biyar ya haɗa da (1) amfani da lalata kamfanin (2), (3), (4) kwance, da kuma (5) Rodriguez ).

Mun duba zuwa bincike na gaba don gane hanyoyin da aka yi (1) na iya karawa lokacin amfani da batsa, kuma (2) na iya ƙara yawan hali marar kyau. Binciken na farko ya nuna akalla biyu, abubuwan da ba su da bambanci don amfani da batsa don shawo kan dabi'a marasa kyau: watakila (1) ƙarfafa jinkirin jinkirta da (2) ƙara ƙarfafa wasu (sabili da haka kara haɓaka halin kirki).8 Binciken da aka gabatar ya nuna cewa waɗannan abubuwa suna kunna ko ƙarawa lokacin kallon batsa, ko da yake, kamar yadda aka tattauna a sassan da ke gaba, an nuna hujja game da ainihin tasirin batsa akan kowane tsari. Rushe rangwamewa da haɓakawa ma an haɗa su da canje-canje a cikin hali marar kyau. Ta haka ne, zamu bincika dangantakar dake tsakanin cin batsa da kuma rashin dabi'a da kuma gano ko jinkirta jinkirta da haɓakawa na daidaita batun. A cikin sassan da ke gaba, muna tattauna kowane ɗayan waɗannan sassan da kuma gabatar da jimlar ka'idodinmu.

Ƙaddamar da Dama

Rage rangwame yana jinkirta sakamakon ci gaba a gaba ko kuma ya fi son samun sakamako a yau a kan sakamako mai mahimmanci mai zuwa (Lauya ; Negash et al. ; Rachlin da Green ). Mutanen da suke son karɓar kyaututtukan da suka fi muhimmanci a nan gaba fiye da raƙuman kudaden da suke da ita a yanzu suna da ƙananan rangwame (watau, sakamakon ya rasa talauci a kan lokaci), yayin da mutane da suka fi son samun farin ciki a nan gaba a kan sakamakon da ake samu a nan gaba an kwatanta da suna da yawan farashi. Alal misali, wani da yake da jinkirin jinkirta jinkirin zai karbi $ 1 a yanzu fiye da $ 10 a mako guda daga yanzu, yayin da mutumin da ya rage farashi mai jinkirin zai jira cikin mako don karɓar yawan kuɗi.

Dukkan waɗanda ke da kudaden kudade masu daraja suna da alamun "mai jinkiri, ba da damuwa ba, wanda ba shi da tsinkaye, ko kuma ba shi da iko" (Fawcett et al. , p. 128). Matsayi mafi girma na jinkirta jinkirta suna hade da halayyar irin su cin zarafi, yanke shawara mai mahimmanci, cin zarafin abubuwa, halayyar jima'i mai tsanani, kiba, jarabar yanar gizo, aikata laifuka da kuma caca da yawa (Buzzell et al. ; Chesson et al. ; Crean et al. ; Davis et al. ; Dixon et al. ; Lee et al. ; MacKillop ; Romer et al. ; Saville et al. ). Wato, jinkirta jinkirtawa yana da karfi mai hangen nesa game da halin da ke cikin gajeren hali ciki har da halin rashin fahimta. Lee et al. () Har ila yau, gano cewa ƙara yawan laifuka suna haɗuwa da ƙãra a rangwamen jinkirta suna cewa ba wai kawai mutane da yawan rangwamen jinkirta suna nuna rashin lafiya ba amma suna nuna rashin hankali ba tare da ƙara yawan lokaci ba. Binciken ya hada da cin abincin batsa don ƙara yawan rangwame ta hanyar yin amfani da binciken gwaje-gwaje da bayanai da aka tattara daga filin (Lauya ; Negash et al. ; Van den Bergh et al. ; Wilson da Daly ).

A haɗuwa, binciken ya nuna cewa cin abincin batsa yana haɗuwa da jinkirta jinkirin jinkirta kuma jinkirta jinkirin jinkiri yana haɗi da halayyar rashin gaskiya. Wannan yana nuna cewa hotunan batsa zai haifar da karuwar hali marar haɓaka saboda karuwa a rangwame. Ƙara yawan haɓakar ma'aikata ga samun rangwamen kuɗi da ake samu a nan gaba dangane da amfani na gajeren lokaci yana da damar rinjayar yawancin yanke shawara marar kyau wanda ma'aikata suka yi. Alal misali, masu lissafin sun yanke shawara game da "massage" lambobin kuɗin kudi don duba saurin nan da nan, sau da yawa don samun kariyar haɓaka ko ƙãra darajar biyan bashin su, a kan kuɗin da aka yi na tsawon lokaci (Bergstresser da Philippon ; Cohen et al. ; Graham et al. ; Holderness et al. ). Manajoji dole ne su yi la'akari da amfanin da ake da ita na tsawon lokacin da ake bi da ka'idojin muhalli mai mahimmanci game da biyan kuɗi na gajeren lokaci ga waɗanda ba su bi ka'ida ba. Hakazalika, manajoji na iya samun sakamako na gajeren lokaci daga ciniki wanda ba shi da izini wanda zai ba da dadewa a kan mai sarrafa (har ma da kamfanin). Ta haka ne, ƙarawa da jinkirta jinkirta daga yin amfani da batsa na yin amfani da batsa zai iya rinjayar mummunan yanke shawara na kungiyoyi. Hakazalika, yawan farashi da tsinkaya da yawa na iya haifar da halayyar abokin ciniki maras kyau irin su shoplifting.

Dehumanization

Tsarin dabi'a mai ladabi ɗaya ne wanda mutane suke amfani da su don tabbatar da cewa halin su dace da daidaitattun dabi'un (Bandura ). Za'a iya kunna tsarin kula da kai, duk da haka, za'a iya aiki ko watsi (Bandura ; Detert et al. ). Zubar da tawali'u shine kalmar da aka yi amfani da shi wajen bayyana rashin nasarar yin aiki (ko watsi da) ka'idoji na halin kirki. Rashin kunna halin kirki kai tsaye ta hanyar halin kirki disengagement ƙara haɓaka unethical (misali, Bandura , ; Detert et al. ; Gabbiadini et al. ). Bandura's () Misalin halin kirkirar kirkira ya hada da abubuwa guda takwas wanda ke haifar da halin kirki wanda aka sabawa shi.9

Dehumanization tsari ne na tunanin mutum na kallo da kula da wasu kamar abubuwa ko kuma hanyar kawo karshen rayuwa maimakon mutane (Papadaki ; Saul ).10 Babban matakan da ke faruwa a cikin abubuwa masu ban sha'awa suna faruwa a cikin mashawarcin batsa (Bridges et al. Klaassen da Bitrus ; McKee ) kuma ta haka ne akayi imani da cewa hotunan baturi yana ƙaruwa da yawa. Saboda haka, zamu maida hankali akan ladabi kamar yadda hanya ce ta dace zuwa halin kirki da ke tattare da amfani da batsa. Bugu da ƙari, bincike ya nuna cewa haɓakawa wani abu ne na "zamantakewar zamantakewar yau da kullum" wanda lamarin ya faru (Haslam , 937) kuma baya buƙatar ƙungiyar "in" da "fita" amma zai iya faruwa a matsayin sabon abu (Haslam et al. ).

Yayinda yake da imani da cewa ayyukan aikata laifuka cikin batsa suna kara yawan batsa masu kallo da ke kallon 'yan kallo da ke kallon' yan kallo, musamman mata, (Fagan ; Schneider ), mafi yawan shaida shine daidaituwa kawai, ba m. Alal misali, Bitrus da Valkenburg () sami wata ƙungiya tsakanin daukan hotuna da batsa da mata; marubuta sun lura cewa, wannan dangantaka zai iya faruwa saboda batsa yana karfafa haɓaka ko kuma saboda masu kallo wadanda ke kula da mata suna da karfin cin hanci. Ƙaddamar da batun har yanzu shine shaidar shaida ta haɗuwa. McKee () ya gano cewa babu wani dangantaka tsakanin batsawa game da dabi'un masu amfani da ita ga mata da kuma yawan batsa cinyewa. Yin amfani da shaidar binciken, Hald da Malamuth () rahoton cewa batsa yana da tasiri mai kyau akan fahimtar maza game da mata.

Ward () wani batu ne da ke amfani da tsarin gwaji don bincika dangantakar da ke tsakanin alamun da aka nuna a kafofin watsa labaru da kuma halin da matasa suka yi game da wadanda aka nuna a cikin abubuwan da ke cikin jarida. Ta sami dangantaka tsakanin magoya bayan kafofin watsa labarun da mata da masu ra'ayin masu kallo cewa mata suna da jima'i. Ward da Friedman () sami irin wannan shaidar. Sakamakon binciken duka biyu an samo daga kafofin watsa labaru da za su iya ba za a lasafta su kamar hotuna (misali, shirye-shiryen bidiyo daga tallan talabijin kamar Aboki da Seinfeld), amma wanda zai iya tsammanin sakamakon zai sami magungunan batsa kuma cewa dangantaka zai iya zama karfi.

A takaice dai, kodayake batsa yana nuna haɗuwa da abubuwa masu lalata, shaidar da ke tsakanin kamuwa da batsa da haɓakawa ta haɗu da juna kuma hujjojin gwaji akan dangantakar dake tsakanin kafofin watsa labaru da ke nuna al'amuran yau da kullum da kuma masu kallo game da mata basu duba zane-zane na batsa. Sabili da haka, akwai rashin tabbas game da ko batsa ya kara yawan rikici. Tare da wannan binciken, muna fatan ƙarawa da wallafe-wallafe game da batsa ta hanyar samar da hujjojin gwaji akan dangantakar da ke tsakanin kallon hotunan batsa da haɓakawa, kuma, bi da bi, ko cin zarafin da aka haifar da kallon batsa yana kara yawan halin rashin fahimta.

Ƙara yawan dabi'un rashin fahimta daga ladabi suna da damar bayyanawa a yawan kasuwancin kasuwanci. Alal misali, ƙwarewar karuwa don samun karɓa da kuma duba wasu kawai don hanyar kawo ƙarshen zai iya zama babbar haɗari ga tasiri da haɗin kai tsakanin ƙungiyar (Moore et al. ). Haɗin kai da kuma amincewa a duk faɗin gwargwadon aikin aikin gwaninta suna da muhimmanci don cimma burin mai dagewa (misali, tasowa samfurori, shigar da sababbin kasuwanni, karuwar haɓakar abokin ciniki). Saboda haka, kara yawan karuwar dogara da haɗin gwiwa daga ƙãra ma'aikatan da aka ƙaddamar da haɓakawa na wasu suna da yiwuwar tasiri tasiri mai ƙarfi. Bugu da} ari, a cikin 'yan shekarun nan, kungiyoyi sun ba da babbar zuba jarurruka a shirye-shiryen da za su ci gaba da bunkasa mata masu basira.11 Wadannan zuba jarurruka na iya zama masu rauni a lokacin da ma'aikata, musamman ma wadanda suke cikin matsayi na jagoranci, suna cin batsa. Sakamakon haka, haɓaka ma'aikata don haɓaka ma'aikatan ma'aikata na iya ƙara haɓaka tashin hankali ko rikice-rikicen aiki, duka biyu na iya rage yawan aiki da kuma haifar da kotu.

A ƙarshe, haɓakawa zai iya rinjayar dangantaka ta abokin ciniki. Ma'aikata da ke kula da abokan ciniki kamar abubuwa maimakon girmama darajojin su kamar yadda mutum ke ƙila zai rage karfin abokin ciniki kuma zai iya haifar da kwarewa a kan layi ko kafofin watsa labaru. A wani gefen kuma, abokan ciniki na iya cin amana da kamfanoni ta hanyar yin tsattsauran ra'ayi a matsayin ɗan adam ba tare da tarin mutane ba. Alal misali, abokin ciniki wanda ya sake dawowa da sabanin zai iya sa wa ma'aikata aiki ta hanyar tsammanin cewa suna rage yawan ribar kamfanin amma ba su cutar kowa ba. Ta hanyar ganin kamfanin a matsayin abu banda tarin mutane, abokin ciniki ya sanya tsauri tsakanin juna da ma'aikatan kamfanin, wanda akasin haɓakaccen abokin ciniki ya shafi shi. Wannan hangen nesa yana rage rashin kusanci da hankali wanda abokin ciniki ke jiwa ga wadanda ke da halayyar abokin ciniki kuma zai iya ƙara haɓaka karuwar rashin ciniki (Jones ).12

Abubuwan haɗari

Gabatarwar da ta gabata ta haifar da tunaninmu na farko game da dangantakar dake tsakanin kallon batsa da rashin dabi'a da kuma na biyu, bangarori biyu game da hanyoyin da batsa ke haifar da rashin haɓaka. An bayyana shi bisa ga al'ada:

  • H1: Yin amfani da batsa yana ƙara halayyar rashin adalci.

  • H2a: Yin amfani da batsa yana ƙara jinkirta jinkirtawa, wanda hakan yakan haifar da haɓaka.

  • H2b: Yin amfani da batsa yana haifar da haɓakawa, wanda ya ƙãra hali marar kyau.

Figure 1 ya nuna cewa tsinkayenmu cewa cinye batsa yana kara yawan jinkirta jinkirtawa da haɓaka (mahadar 1), da kuma cin zarafin da aka yi wa batsawa ya haifar da karuwar hali marar kyau (haɗin 2). Har ila yau, adadi yana kwatanta sakamakon zaɓin da zai iya faruwa; mutane da yawa suna iya lalata wasu suna iya ganin hotuna (danganta 3). Kayan gwajin gwaji na bamu damar gwada hanyoyin 1 da 2 yayin sarrafawa don 3 mahaɗi; Ayyukan aikin aiki na baƙi a cikin ƙananan mutane masu kirki suna kasancewa wakilci13 a cikin yanayin gwaje-gwaje don haka yale mu mu sarrafa domin bambancin bambance-bambance a tsakanin mutane a cikin halin da suke da shi na rangwame abubuwan da ke faruwa a nan gaba da zaluntar wasu.14

Siffa 1

Misalin halayyar rashin gaskiya. Wannan adadi yana kwatanta tsinkayenmu (shafukan 1 da 2) da kuma sakamakon zaɓin da zai iya faruwa idan mutane sun fi dacewa su lalata wasu suna iya ganin hotuna (danganta 3). Kayan gwajin gwaji na bamu damar gwada hanyoyi 1 da 2 saboda aikin da ba a ba shi ba ya haifar da rashin daidaituwa a cikin yanayin gwaji. Saboda haka, sakamakon zaɓin ba zai iya lissafta sakamakonmu ba. Kodayake hanyar sadarwa 3 mai ban sha'awa ne, ba zamu iya gano shi ba saboda yadda ba a iya nazarin mu ba. Duk da haka, don kammalawa, mun haɗa shi a cikin tsarin mu na dabi'a marasa dabi'a

Sakamakon binciken da sakamakon

Mun tattara shaida ta amfani da hanyoyi guda biyu. Na farko, muna amfani da binciken da aka tsara don tunawa da samfurin samfurin kasa don samar da gwaji na tarayya na H1 kuma don samar da cikakken ƙarfi na waje wanda sakamakonmu ya haifar da yawan jama'a. Nazarin ya bincika idan wani dangantaka tsakanin batsa da batsa da kuma rashin fahimta ya kasance a cikin jama'a. Mun gane, duk da haka, wannan hanya ta iyakance ne a cikin cewa sakamakon zai iya haifar da haɗin da ya ƙetare canje-canje ko kuma ƙarancin zaɓin zabi don cinye batsa da kuma zaɓin da za a yi da rashin hankali. Ta haka ne, muna amfani da hanya na biyu, gwajin gwagwarmaya, wanda bai dace da waɗannan ƙayyadaddun ba kuma yale mu mu bincika idan jinkirta da jinkirta da / ko ladabi na yin musayar maɓamai. Wato, gwajin gwagwarmaya na samar da ingantattun ƙwaƙwalwar ajiyar ciki kuma yana gudanarwa gwaje-gwaje game da tunaninmu na watsa labarai. Ana gabatar da sakamakon bincike a sashe na gaba kuma sakamakon sakamakon gwaji ya bi.

Kayan Gida

Wanda su ka Halarta

Mun biya lasisi don karɓar kwamiti na mahalarta 1000 masu girma - sun mayar da martani mai amfani na 1083. Masu amfani da samfurori sunyi amfani da samfurori da yawa don samar da samfurin samfurin na al'ummar kasar Amurka a cikin dimokuradiyya.15 Dangane da halin jarrabawa, 48.5% na samfurin ya kasance namiji, kuma yawancin shekaru ya kasance 47. Kusan 43% na samfurin yana da digiri na biyu ko mafi girma, kuma 24% ya karbi digiri na biyu ko žasa. Zaɓin zaɓi na kusa da wakilcin kasa yana ba mu damar nuna cewa waɗannan sakamako ya kamata su kasance cikakke ga yawancin matasan Amurka.

Ɗawainiya da matakan

Binciken na farko ya tambayi mahalarta tambayoyin jama'a kuma sa'annan mahalarta karanta wannan labari:

Ka kwanan nan ka sayo kujeru mai tsada a wani kantin sayar da gida wanda ke da manufofi mai karfi. Manufar dawowa tana ba ka damar dawowa abubuwa idan akwai lahani a masana'antu amma ba idan ka jawo lalacewar samfur ta hanyar amfani ba. Kodayake ka san shagon yana da matukar mahimmanci, ka san cewa kawai hanyar da za su aiwatar da manufar ita ce ta tambayi abokin ciniki ko sun yi amfani da samfurin ko a'a. Bayan da kuka kawo kujera a gida, kuna lalata ta ta hanyar yin amfani da ku don kada ya aiki.

Bayan karatun halin da ake ciki, mahalarta sun nuna yadda zai yiwu su dawo da samfurin kuma sunyi iƙirarin cewa yana da lahani a masana'antu don haka zasu iya samun sabon kujera. An rubuta amsoshin a kan ma'auni na 5 wanda ke da shakka ba zai dawo ba (1), watakila ba zai dawo ba (2), watakila zai dawo (3), mai yiwuwa zai dawo (4), kuma zai dawo (5). Masu halartar sun nuna sau da yawa suna kallon kayan batsa. Mun bayyana abubuwan batsa ga masu halartar "bidiyo, mujallu, intanet, hotuna, littattafai, da dai sauransu." Wannan yana bayyana mutanen da suke yin jima'i, nuna hotuna game da hankalin mutum ko kuma mutanen da ke yin jima'i, ko kuma nuna fim din ko abin da ke bayanin mutanen da suke yin jima'i. " Masu shiga sun amsa kan layin 5 da aka lakafta: Babu (1), da wuya (2), lokaci-lokaci (3), akai-akai (4), ko kuma yawanci (5). Muna bincika halin da ake ciki na abokin ciniki saboda, kamar ma'aikata, abokan ciniki suna da muhimmanci masu shiga cikin kasuwanci (Ferrell ; Henriques da Sadorsky ).

Sakamakon binciken

Figure 2 da kuma Table 1 gabatar da sakamakon da yayi la'akari da daidaitaka tsakanin masu binciken masu son yin nazari don dawo da kujerar batutuwa da batsa. Wani dangantaka mai mahimmanci (ma'ana) yana nuna cewa ana haɗin amfani da batsa tare da ƙãra (raguwar) a cikin halin rashin gaskiya. Hoto 2 ya nuna kyakkyawan dangantaka tsakanin mitar yawancin batsa da kuma rashin haɓaka. Tebur 1, Rukunin A yana bayar da rarraba sau da yawa mutane suka ba da rahoton yin kallon batsa. Mun gano cewa 44% na samfurin bai taba kallon batsa ba, 24% da wuya a duba shi, 22% wani lokaci duba shi, da kuma 6% da 4% akai-akai kuma suna kallon batsa akai-akai.16 Saboda haka, 56% na samfurin wakilci na kasa ya nuna akalla wasu abubuwan da ake amfani da su wajen cin batsa. Bugu da ƙari kuma, muna ganin wani haɗin kai mai zurfi tsakanin kamfanonin batsa da aka ba da labarin da kuma shirye-shirye don dawo da abu a cikin kantin sayar da hankali. ANOVA ta amfani da sabawa yana nuna ƙungiyoyi daban-daban guda uku (sakamakon ba a ƙayyade ba). Masu halartar cewa ba za su iya ganin batsa ba su zama marasa fahimta fiye da duk sauran mahalarta. Masu halartar da suka bayar da rahoto akai-akai kallon batsa suna da muhimmanci fiye da sauran kungiyoyi. Masu halartar cewa sau da yawa, lokaci-lokaci, kuma akai-akai suna kallon hotunan batsa suna da mahimmanci su dawo da abu fiye da mahalarta wadanda ba su taba kallon batsa ba amma suna da wuya su dawo da abu fiye da mahalarta wadanda suka bayar da rahoto kallon batsa akai-akai.

Siffa 2

Hanyoyin kamuwa da batuttukan da aka ruwaito kansu a kan hanyar rashin fahimta ta amfani da bayanan bincike. Wannan adadi ya kwatanta sakamakon da aka samo daga samfurin samfurin kasa (watau binciken binciken). Adadin ya nuna a gefen hagu y-sai yiwuwar komawar sayarwa mai gaskiya ba zuwa kantin sayar da kaya ba xmahalarta mahalarta sunyi amfani da batutuwa. Hakki y-axis da layin suna nuna yawan mahalarta wadanda suka ruwaito amfani da batsa a kowane ɗayan

Tebur 1

Analysis na binciken binciken

Rukunin A: Matsayin da ake so don mayar da abu marar gaskiya ta hanyar sauƙi na kallon fina-finai

Yanayin kallon kallon batsa

N

%

Ba da kyaun mayar da abu ba

SD

1-Babu

478

44

1.78

1.15

2-Rarely

263

24

2.07

1.15

3-lokaci-lokaci

233

22

2.12

1.13

4-Sau da yawa

63

6

2.16

1.18

5-Sau da yawa akai-akai

46

4

2.96

1.71

Panel B: Sakamakon lalacewa, amincewa da amincewa da sake dawowa abu mara gaskiya

m

Kashi

SE

Wald χ2

p darajar

PornViewing

0.19

0.06

11.70

<0.001

Shekaru

- 0.01

0.00

9.72

0.002

Namiji

0.04

0.13

0.11

0.738

Mai ilimi

- 0.05

0.04

1.56

0.212

ta'adi

- 0.30

0.05

33.38

<0.001

N = 1083; Pseduo. R2 = 0.092

Wannan tebur yana nuna sakamakon da aka samo daga samfurin samfurin kasa. Panel A rahotanni da matsakaicin score Sake Sake Komawa Mataki ta hanyar daukar nauyin halayen batutuwa masu yawan batutuwa da aka ruwaito, yayin da Bangaren B ya yi rahoton sakamakon ƙwaƙwalwar saiti na doka Sake Sake Komawa Mataki a kan yawan hotuna batsa (PornViewing) da kuma sarrafa masu canji. An yi amfani da yin amfani da ladabi da aka yi amfani da shi ta hanyar yin amfani da shi saboda matakan da ke dogara da shi yana nuna kyamaci maimakon bayanan lokaci. Gyara mai dogara (Sake Sake Komawa Mataki) an auna shi a kan wani ma'auni na 5 wanda ya ƙunshi shakka ba zai dawo (1) ba, ba zai dawo ba (2), watakila zai dawo (3), mai yiwuwa zai dawo (4), kuma zai dawo (5). Ana bayyana ayoyi masu zuwa kamar haka: PornViewing shi ne mita da mutum ke kallon batsa, wanda aka auna a kan sikelin 5. Shekaru shine shekarun mutumin da aka auna a cikin shekaru. Namiji yana da matukar dichotomous ɗaukar darajar 1 idan mutum ya kasance namiji da kuma darajar 0 in ba haka ba. Mai ilimi yana da nauyin ƙananan matakan ilimi wanda ya ƙunshi ƙasa da digiri na high school (1), makarantar sakandare / GED (2), wasu kwaleji (3), digiri na kwalejin 2-shekara (4), digiri na kwaleji na 4 (5) , digiri na digiri (6), digiri digiri (7), da digiri na sana'a (8). ta'adi shi ne tashin hankali da aka yi amfani da shi ta hanyar amfani da gajere (tambayoyi 12) na Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire. Ƙididdiga mafi girma suna nuna ƙarar tashin hankali

Bayan haka, zamu bincika dangantakar tsakanin masu mahalarta shirye-shirye don mayar da kuɗaɗɗen kujera da batsa a cikin ƙirar ƙirar da ta ƙunshi ƙirar masu sarrafawa da yawa don rage yiwuwar cewa sakamakonmu yana iya haifar da haɗin ƙididdigar saɓo. Musamman, mun hada da shekaru saboda bincike na farko ya nuna cewa ƙananan yara suna iya cin batsa (Buzzell ; Hald ), jinsi kamar yadda maza zasu iya kallon batsa fiye da mata (Buzzell ; Cooper et al. ; Hald ), ilimi kamar yadda mutane marasa ilimi suke cinye batsa fiye da mutane masu ilimi (Richters et al. , Yang ), da kuma zalunci saboda binciken da aka yi a baya ya nuna cewa mutane da yawa masu rikitarwa na iya zama mafi kusantar cinye batsa (Malamut et al. ). Muna bayar da rahoton sakamakon daga wannan bincike a cikin Panel B na Table 1. Mun gano cewa ko da bayan sarrafawa ga waɗannan canje-canje, hotunan batsa yana da alaƙa da halayyar rashin gaskiya. Muna gudanar da ƙarin nazari kuma ba mu sami shaida cewa duk wani iko na masu sarrafawa yana hulɗar da amfani da batsa ta kansa ba don haifar da halin rashin fahimta. Saboda haka, binciken binciken mu na binciken H1 yana nuna cewa ganin hotunan batsa yana da alaƙa da halayyar rashin gaskiya.

Kwalejin gwaji da Sakamako

Kwalejin gwaji

Wanda su ka Halarta

Mun yi amfani da mahalarta 200 don gwaji ta amfani da kasuwar kwastomomin Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk). Mutum ɗari da casa'in da tara cikin nasara suka kammala aikin. Dangane da yanayin alƙaluma, kashi 54% na samfurin maza ne, matsakaicin shekaru 35 ne, kuma kashi 91% na samfurin ana aiki ban da aiki ga MTurk. Munyi amfani da kasuwar kwadagon MTurk saboda dalilai da yawa. Na farko, yana ba da yanayin duniyar gaske don gwajinmu. An yi hayar masu shiga kuma an biya su don kammala aikin da za a iya tsammanin su yi akan MTurk. Na biyu, yayin da ba bayyane yake ba samfurin wakilci, mahalarta MTurk suna amsawa daidai da bazuwar samfuran mahalarta Amurka a gwaje-gwajen gargajiya (Berinsky et al. ; Paolacci da Chandler ). Na uku, binciken ya nuna cewa masu amfani da MTurk sun amsa gayyatar da za su yi yaudara amma ba za su iya yaudara ba fiye da dalibai koleji, kuma suna da gaskiya lokacin da masu bada rahotanni masu zaman kansu (Goodman et al. ; Suri et al. ).17

Ɗawainiya da auna

Mun sanar da masu halartar cewa muna amfani da su don shiga cikin nazarin yadda ƙididdigar ƙwaƙwalwar ajiyar ta shafi tasiri. Mun lura a fili cewa ana biyan mahalarta don kallon bidiyon a cikin dukansa. Masu halartar suka yi aikin ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya, wanda ya bukaci su su tuna abubuwa biyu kuma su bayyana su daki-daki. Tunatarwa ta farko ya tambayi dukkan mahalarta su bayyana cikakkun ranar haihuwa. Daga nan sai aka ba da halartar masu halartar zama a cikin wani yanayin kulawa ko yanayin batsa. Don tunawa ta biyu, wadanda aka sanya su a yanayin kulawa sun bayyana irin abubuwan da suke dasu na ƙarshe, ciki har da tufafinsu, ayyukan da aka yi, da kuma saiti. Sabanin haka, an tambayi masu halartar yanayin batsa don bayyana halin su na karshe da ke kallon batsa, ciki har da matsakaiciyar ra'ayi, abun ciki, da tsawon lokaci.

Mun zabi gangan don kada mu gabatar da mahalarta ga batsa don dalilai da dama. Na farko, ba mu so mu gaya wa mahalarta kafin nazarin cewa zai iya kunshe da kayan batsa saboda wannan zai iya haifar da sakamako na zaɓaɓɓu da / ko abubuwan da ake bukata. Na biyu, idan ba mu gaya wa mahalarta cewa binciken zai iya ƙunsar batsa masu amfani da batsa ba zai zama marasa amfani don tilasta mahalarta su duba abubuwan da wasu suke ganin ba su da kyau (kuma yana iya haifar da cutar da mahalarta). Na uku, hanyarmu tana ba mahalarta damar nuna cewa ba amfani da batsa ba kuma ba sa cutar da su ba yayin da suke kunna hotunan batsa a zukatan mahalarta wadanda ke cin batsa. Ta haka ne, mun sami sakamako mai mahimmanci na kunna hotunan batsa a zukatan mahalarta kuma ya kauce wa labarun da ba'a so ba zuwa batsa.

Bayan sun kwatanta tunaninsu, mun tambayi duk masu halartar kallon fim na 10-min daga Blue by Derek Jarman. Bidiyon ya ƙunshi asalin shuɗi tare da muryar ƙaramar magana yana magana da fassarar ƙaramin minti 10 duka. Shirye-shiryen na da ban sha'awa da tsayi don samar da kwarin gwiwa ga mahalarta su tsallake fim ɗin. Bayan kallon bidiyon, mahalarta a takaice sun bayyana halayensu ga shirin fim din.18

Biye da ɓangaren bidiyo na gwaji, mahalarta sun bada amsoshin yin la'akari da jinkirta jinkirta da haɓakawa domin gwada gwagwarmayar rikici (umarni da aka bazu).19 An ƙaddamar da rangwamewa ta hanyar amfani da hanyar da Kirby da Maraković suka bayar () (duba "Shafi 1"Sashi na tambayoyi). An gabatar da masu halartar da yanayi daban-daban kuma an umurce su su zabi sakamakon da suka fi so, wanda shine wani sakamako na gaba ko sakamako mai jinkiri. Sakamakon wannan sikelin yana wakiltar jadawalin kuɗin da wanda ɗan takara ya canza daga zaɓar wani ladabi na gaggawa don zabar sakamako mai jinkiri. An kiyasta haɓaka ta hanyar amfani da hanyar amfani da Leanci et al. () wanda ke da mahalarta suyi bayanin yadda za su iya gane wasu don su iya samun motsin zuciyarmu (duba "Shafi 2"Sashi na tambayoyi).20 Abokan da suke ganin wasu ƙananan iya samun ƙananan motsin zuciyarmu an ladafta su suna ci gaba da haɗakar da wasu.

A ƙarshe, an tambayi mahalarta idan sun kalli shirin kundin fim din gaba daya. Saboda mun iya rikodin tsawon lokacin da kowane ɗan takara ya kalli shirin fim din, mun gano wadanda ke kallon kowane bidiyon da wadanda basu yi ba. Don gwada kwance, mun gano masu halartar wadanda ba su kula da duk bidiyo amma sun amsa cewa suna da. Wato, muna ƙirƙirar matakan dichotomous yana nuna ko mahalarta ƙarya ko ba ƙarya. A wani misali wani mai takara ya tsallake rabo daga shirin fim din kuma ya bayar da rahoto da gaskiya cewa basu duba duk shirin. Saboda haka, a cikin gwaji, shirka da kwance game da aikin da ake amfani da su an yi amfani da su lokaci-lokaci duk lokacin da abokin tarayya aka shirka.

Mahalarta sunyi rahoton sau da yawa suna kallon batsa. An bayyana abubuwa masu ruɗi ga masu halartar ta amfani da ma'anar da aka yi amfani dashi a binciken. An kuma tambayi masu halartar tambayoyi game da hali da kuma addini.

Sakamakon gwaji

Muna bayar da rahoton sakamakon da muke jarrabawar mu ta amfani da gwaji a Fig. 3 da kuma Table 2. Hoto 3 yana ba da alamun gani na sakamakon da ya nuna cewa masu amsawa a batsa suna tunawa da yanayin shirka da kuma karya game da aikin da aka yi fiye da masu sauraron wadanda suka tuna abin da ba na batsa ba. Tebur 2 ya nuna cewa 21% na mahalarta da aka tambayi don tunawa da kallon batsa ba su kula da bidiyon ba kuma sun yi karya game da aikin da suka yi idan aka kwatanta da 8% kawai na mahalarta wadanda suka tuna wani taron ba na batsa. Wannan bambanci yana da mahimmanci kuma yana da girma cikin girma kamar yadda 163% karuwa a shirka / kwance. Saboda haka, waɗannan sakamakon gwaji sun goyi bayan sakamakon bincike kuma sun samar da hujjoji da yawa da suka nuna cewa kallon batsa yana sa mutane su zama marasa kirki.

Siffa 3

Hanyoyin tunawa da batsa a kan labarun marasa imani da masu amfani da masu amfani ta hanyar amfani da bayanan gwaji. Wannan adadi ya kwatanta sakamakon daga bayanan gwaji. Adadin yana nuna yawan masu halartar da suka hada da shirka da karya game da aikin da ake yi yayin tunawa da batsa. Har ila yau, ya nuna nauyin kuɗi na masu musayar juna biyu, haɓaka, da jinkirta jinkirta a fadin yanayi na gwaji guda biyu

Tebur 2

Analysis na bayanan gwaji

m

Babu Sake Ayyukan Hotuna

Daukar hotuna ta batsa

Gwaje-gwaje don bambancin

Ma'ana

SD

Ma'ana

SD

Shirk / ƙarya

0.08

0.28

0.21

0.41

χ2 = 6.08, p = 0.007

Rage rangwame

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.02

t = 1.10, p = 0.274

Dehumanization

1.73

0.95

2.45

1.75

t = - 3.64, p <0.001

Mazaunan 199 sun kammala aikin. Yanayin 97 da batsa na Hotuna ba tare da sun hada da mahalarta 102 ba. Ana kwatanta ana tsakanin kungiyoyi biyu: da Babu Sake Ayyukan Hotuna rukuni ba su tuna da kwarewar da suka faru kwanan nan ba game da batsa da kuma batutuwa Daukar hotuna ta batsa kungiyar ta tuna da kwanan nan da suke kallon batsa. Ana bayyana ayoyi masu zuwa kamar haka: Shirk / ƙarya yana da matukar dichotomous ɗaukar darajar 1 idan ɗan takara ya tsallake bidiyo (watau aikin shirka) kuma yayi karya game da kallon bidiyo da 0 a wasu. Rage rangwame su ne tambayoyi bisa Kirby da Maraković (). Mahalarta sun nuna ko za su karbi kyauta ko jinkirta kyauta don 21 abubuwa daban-daban. An yi amfani da martani don haka halayen da suka fi girma suna nuna yawan farashin jinkirta. Dehumanization ne ƙananan basirar da Leanci et al. (). Mun ƙaddamar da martani na 7-ma'auni don motsin zuciyarmu na hudu kuma ya sanya su a matsayin haka mafi girma Ƙididdiga suna nuna ƙarin ladabi

Lokacin da aka kwatanta masu yin musaya a cikin yanayi, zamu lura cewa ladabi ne kawai a cikin mahimmanci biyu (duba Fig. 3 da kuma Table 2).21 Wato, ƙungiyar da take tunawa da batsa ya fi dacewa ta yaudarar wasu fiye da rukunin da ba su tuna batsa ba. Ƙungiyar da take tunawa da batsa ba ta samu karin jinkirta ba.22

Don yin gwaji H2 na al'ada, zamu gudanar da bincike akan magancewa ta hanyar amfani da Macro Macros ga SAS. A Table 3, muna bayar da rahoton sakamakon daga jarrabawar nau'o'i biyu kuma gano cewa samfurin kawai idan muka lura da wani tasiri mai mahimmanci na batsa game da aikin shiryawa da kuma karya shine cin mutunci.23 Saboda haka, mun fahimci cewa dalilin da ya sa batsa ya haɓaka halin kirki shi ne kallon hotunan batsa ya sa mai kallo ya lalata wasu, wanda hakan zai haifar da mai son kallon aikin shirka kuma yayi karya don samun karba.

Table 3

Tattaunawa game da dangantaka mai mahimmanci don tattaunawa game da gwaji

Ko da yake mun sanya mahalarta a cikin yanayi ba tare da izini ba, yana yiwuwa cewa, ba zato ba tsammani, yanayi ya bambanta akan muhimman muhimmancin da zai iya tasiri sakamakon. Ta haka ne, muna jarraba ko yanayin mu ya bambanta a kan yawan masu rikici na alƙaluma ko wasu masu canji waɗanda zasu iya rinjayar sakamakon. Musamman, mun gwada ko yanayin ya kasance daidai da yanayin jinsi, shekaru, matsayin aure, ilimi, matsayi na aiki (aiki ko a'a), matakin samun kudin shiga, yin amfani da batutuwa da kansa, da kuma shaidar da mutum ya ruwaito. Mun gano cewa bazuwar ya ci nasara a cikin cewa babu wasu bambance-bambance masu bambanci a tsakanin yanayi sai dai da addini da aka ruwaito-musamman, yanayin da ya tuna batsa yana da mutane da yawa fiye da yanayin da ya dace (wanda ya kamata ya nuna rashin amincewa da sakamakon bincike; . Saboda haka, muna gudanar da ANCOVA don gwada ko sakamakonmu yana da karfi don hada da ma'auni na addini. Mun gano cewa sakamakon yana da karfi ga hada da addini a matsayin abokin tarayya. Bugu da ƙari kuma, muna jarraba ko sakamakonmu yana da ƙarfi ga hada da sauran ƙididdigar alƙalummuka kamar yadda ake amfani da su (sakamakon ba a ƙayyade) ba; mun gano cewa sakamakonmu yana da ƙarfi.

A ƙarshe, yana yiwuwa mahalarta da aka ba da batirin batsa ba su kallon batsa. Idan mutanen da suke guje wa batsa ba su iya yin ƙarya kamar yadda muka ɗauka, wannan zai nuna rashin amincewa da sakamakon binciken. Duk da haka, muna nazarin bayanin masu halartar mahalarta ko kuma batuttukan batsa kuma mun gano cewa masu sauraron 18 (17.7% na samfurin) sun ruwaito ba tare da kallon batsa ba a cikin bayanin su, masu sauraron 14 (13.7% na samfurin) rahotanni ba tare da kallon batsa ba, da sauran 70 masu amsa (68.6% na samfurin) aka bayyana dalla dalla akan kallon batsa.24 Mun sake nazarin mu a hanyoyi uku: (1) ban da wadanda suka bayar da rahoto ba kallon batsa, (2) ba tare da wadanda suka ba da rahoton ba da gangan kallon batsa, da kuma (3) ba tare da wadanda suka bayar da rahotanni ba ko suna kallon batsa ba tare da gangan ba. A cikin dukkanin bincike uku, sakamakonmu suna da alamun kama da waɗanda aka ruwaito.25

Ƙarin Bayanan Mahimmanci

Mun tattara bayanai game da amfani da batsa da aka ruwaito daga duka bincikenmu da gwaji. A cikin wannan ɓangaren, muna bayar da cikakken bayani game da abubuwan da suka danganci amfani da batutuwa masu girman kai. Wannan bincike zai iya zama da amfani ga masu bincike na gaba da suke so su fahimci game da amfani da tasirin batsa. Tebur 4 Ya gabatar da sakamakon tare da Ƙa'idar Rubuce-rubucen sakamakon sakamakon ƙwaƙwalwa ta yin amfani da bayanan binciken da kuma Bangaren B yana bada rahoton sakamakon da aka yi amfani da shi ta hanyar amfani da bayanan gwaji. Ba mu tambayi tambayoyin alƙaluman tambayoyi guda biyu a cikin kokarin da aka tattara na tattara bayanai ba; Ta haka ne, samfurin ya bambanta dangane da samin bayanai.

Tebur 4

Binciken fassarar yin amfani da batsa da aka yi amfani da shi don yin bincike da kuma bayanan gwaji

m

Kashi

SE

t darajar

p darajar

Rukunin A: Dokar da aka sanya wa doka ta bincike tare da bayanan bincike, mai dogara da tsinkayen batutuwa

 Namiji

1.55

0.13

149.93

<0.001

 Shekaru

- 0.04

0.00

98.78

<0.001

 Ilimi

0.06

0.04

2.70

0.100

 Republican

- 0.26

0.15

3.08

0.079

 Democrat

0.07

0.14

0.23

0.633

N = 1083; Yaudara R2 = 0.191

Ƙungiyar B: Dokar da aka sanya ta hanyar bincike tare da bayanan gwajin, mai dogara da tsinkayen batutuwa masu amfani da batsa

 Namiji

1.31

0.29

20.50

<0.001

 Shekaru

- 0.02

0.01

1.33

0.249

 aure

- 0.47

0.29

2.51

0.113

 Ilimi

- 0.25

0.12

4.31

0.038

 Income

0.00

0.00

6.09

0.014

 aiki

0.93

0.48

3.75

0.053

 Addini

- 0.52

0.14

14.89

<0.001

N = 195; Yaudara R2 = 0.269

Wannan tebur yana bayar da rahoton sakamakon sakamakon ladaran da aka yi amfani da shi don bincike na bincike. An yi amfani da yin amfani da ladabi da aka yi amfani da shi ta hanyar yin amfani da shi saboda matakan da ke dogara da shi yana nuna kyamaci maimakon bayanan lokaci. An rarraba masu canzawa kamar haka: Shekaru shine shekarun mutumin da aka auna a cikin shekaru. Namiji yana da matukar dichotomous ɗaukar darajar 1 idan mutum ya kasance namiji da kuma darajar 0 in ba haka ba. Ilimi yana da nauyin ƙananan matakan ilimi wanda ya ƙunshi ƙasa da digiri na high school (1), makarantar sakandare / GED (2), wasu kwaleji (3), digiri na kwalejin 2-shekara (4), digiri na kwaleji na 4 (5) , digiri na digiri (6), digiri digiri (7), da digiri na sana'a (8). Republican yana da matukar dichotomous ɗaukar darajar 1 idan mutum ya kasance na Jam'iyyar Republican da darajar 0 ba haka ba. Democrat yana da matukar dichotomous ɗaukar darajar 1 idan mutum yana cikin jam'iyyar Democrat da kuma darajar 0 ba haka ba. aure yana da matukar dichotomous ɗaukar darajar 1 idan mutum ya yi aure da kuma darajar 0 ba haka ba. Income shi ne m ma'auni yawan kai rahoton matakin samun kudin shiga. aiki yana da matukar dichotomous ɗaukar darajar 1 idan ana amfani da mutumin da kuma darajar 0 ba haka ba. Addini Yawancin tambayoyin biyu: "Sau nawa kuna halartar coci ko sauran tarurruka?" da kuma "Sau nawa kuke yin lokaci a ayyukan addini, kamar addu'a, tunani, ko nazarin Littafi Mai Tsarki"?

Sakamakon binciken binciken (Panel A) ya nuna cewa maza suna iya cin batsa fiye da mata, amma cin batsa na rage yawan shekarun da 'yan Jamhuriyyar Republican ba su iya kallon batsa fiye da wadanda ba su cikin ɗaya daga cikin manyan jam'iyyun siyasa biyu (wani F-test kuma ya nuna cewa 'yan Republican suna kallon hotunan ba da yawa ba fiye da Democrat). Sakamakon daga bayanan gwajin (Panel B) ya nuna cewa mutane, masu arziki, da kuma ma'aikata masu aiki suna iya kallon batsa amma masu ilmantarwa da kuma addini suna da wuya su duba batsa. Ba abin mamaki ba ne cewa sakamakonmu daidai ne da nazarin da suka gabata wanda ya nuna samari matasa, masu amfani da mutane, da kuma maza kamar yadda ake ganin batsa (Buzzell ; Cooper et al. ; Hald ). Sakamakonmu wanda ke nuna 'yan addinai ba su iya ganin batsa ba daidai ne da Short et al. (), wanda ya nuna cewa 'yan addini ba su iya ganin batsa ba a halin yanzu ko a halin yanzu suna da alaka da Baltazar et al. (), wanda ya nuna cewa addini yana haɗuwa tare da jinkirin sa'o'i kadan da kallon batsa cikin maza. Sakamakonmu ma daidai da Richters et al. () da Yang () wanda ya nuna cewa ilimin ilimi yana da alaka da halayen batsa. Duk da haka, sakamakonmu game da samun kudin shiga ba daidai ba ne tare da Buzzell () waɗanda suka gano cewa akwai mummunar dangantaka tsakanin kallon batsa da samun kudin iyali.26

Kammalawa

A cikin wannan binciken, zamu sami shaida cewa kallon hotunan batsa yana rinjayar hali marar kyau. Yin amfani da gwaje-gwajen, zamu kafa dangantaka tsakanin kawance tsakanin kallon batsa da kuma karuwar hali marasa dabi'a kuma ya nuna cewa wannan dangantaka tana rikici ta hanyar haɓakawa. Ta yin amfani da binciken, zamu tantance abubuwan da muka gano a samfurin samfurin na kasa kuma mun gano cewa dangantakar dake tsakanin batsa ta batsa da kuma rashin dabi'a ba ta bayyana a samfurin wakilcin.

Wannan gwaji ya bayar da shaida tare da inganci na ciki, yayin da binciken ya haifar da ƙarfin zuciya ga tabbatarwa ta waje na sakamakonmu. Gaskiyar cewa dangantaka za a iya gani a duka gwaji da kuma binciken bincike ya nuna kyakkyawan dangantaka tsakanin cin batsa da kuma rashin dabi'a, wanda yana da muhimmiyar mahimmanci ga harkokin kasuwanci. A cikin gwajin, yanayin tunawa da batsa ya faru ne kawai kafin yanayin da ya dace da ka'ida. Wannan yana nuna cewa ma'aikatan da suke kallon batsa a aiki kuma waɗanda suke fuskantar sha'anin da'awa sun fi dacewa suyi aikin rashin gaskiya.

Saboda hotunan batsa yana ƙaruwa da rashin haɓakawa da kuma sakamakon da ya haifar da karuwa don ƙetare wasu, sakamakonmu yana da nasaba da yawancin yanke shawara da kasuwanci. Alal misali, ƙwarewar karuwa don samun karɓuwa da kuma duba wasu kawai don hanyar kawo ƙarshen zai iya zama mummunan haɗari ga tasiri da haɗin kai. Bugu da ƙari, zalunta abokan ciniki kamar abubuwa maimakon girmama su zai iya rage yawan gamsar da abokin ciniki. Har ila yau, iyawar ƙungiyoyi na dagewa da kuma bunkasa mata masu basira za a iya katsewa lokacin da ma'aikata, musamman ma wadanda suke cikin matsayi na jagoranci, sun cinye batsa da kuma ƙetare halayyar lalata. A ƙarshe, ƙãra ma'aikaci don yin aiki da ma'aikatan aiki zai iya ƙara haɓaka da haɗari da jima'i ko wuraren aiki mai ban tsoro, duka biyu na iya rage yawan aiki da kuma haifar da kotu.

A karshe, an haɗu da haɓaka da wasu dabi'u masu haɓaka a cikin haɓaka da rashin haɓakawa ciki har da haɓaka karɓuwa don rage wasu (Bar-Tal ), ƙara tsanantawa (Greitemeyer da Mclatchie ; Rudman da Mescher ), da kuma rage shirye-shiryen yin aiki tare da wasu (Andrighetto et al. ; Cuddy et al. ). Saboda haka, dabi'a marasa dabi'a na iya zama ɗaya daga sakamakon da yawancin ma'aikata ke amfani da batsa; za mu bar aiki na gaba don yin bincike sosai game da wannan sakamakon.

Idan aka ba da mummunan tasirin batsa da muka samu a cikin wannan binciken, menene jagorancin kasuwanci zasu yi? Duk da yake wannan binciken bai samar da shawarwari na tushen shaida ba, muna nuna ayoyi da yawa da kuma karfafa masu bincike a nan gaba don samar da shawarwari masu bada shaida. Kamfanoni na iya aiwatar da kariya da kuma jami'an tsaro don inganta wannan batu (Kristi et al. , ). Gudanarwar hanawa zai iya haɗawa da irin abubuwan da za su iya yin amfani da intanet da kuma rufe na'urori don hana mutane daga samun damar yin amfani da kayan aikin batsa akan injunan kamfanin ko fiye da kamfanin Wi-Fi. Wannan yana rage damar, amma bai kawar da damar ba yayin da ma'aikata zasu iya yin amfani da wayoyin salula don samun damar batsa. Kamfanoni zasu iya aiwatar da manufofi da suka haramta amfani da batsa a aiki, sannan kuma tare da masu lura da jami'an zasu iya tilasta bukatun horo ko fansa idan aka samu ma'aikata ta saba wa waɗannan manufofi. A ƙarshe, kamfanoni zasu iya neman kamfanonin da ba su iya ganin batsa fiye da sauran.

Mun gane cewa wannan nazarin yana ƙarƙashin wasu ƙuntatawa. Musamman, a cikin gwajinmu, ba a bayyane yake nunawa batutuwa ba. Muna magana da wannan ta hanyar mahalartawa tare da tunanin kansu na kallon batsa. Bincike na gaba zai iya zaɓar don magance wannan ta hanyar yin amfani da kai tsaye. Wani ƙuntatawar gwajinmu ba zamu iya tabbatar da cewa motsin tunawa ba shi da tasiri a kan halin rashin haɓaka. Sakamakonmu ya nuna cewa hotunan batsa yana rinjayar hali marar haɓaka ta hanyar haɓakawa; ba mu da wani dalili da za mu yi tsammani aikin motsa jiki zai iya tasiri. Duk da haka, wannan yiwuwar ta kasance. Game da bincikenmu, mun fahimci cewa yin amfani da matakan abu daya kawai don auna dabi'u marasa tunani ba manufa bane. Duk da haka, muna fatan cewa binciken binciken da aka yi la'akari da juna tare da sakamakon gwaji ya ba da tabbaci game da tasiri na batsa a kan rashin dabi'a. Wani tambayan da aka bari a kan batun tsawon lokaci ne na tasirin batsa. Mun bar don bincike na gaba da bincike mai ban sha'awa na tasiri da tsayin daka.

Mun kuma lura cewa bayaninmu na batsa yana da kyau. Bincike na gaba zai iya magance yadda batutuwa iri-iri na musamman ke shafar nau'o'in dabi'u marasa kyau. Wani hanya mai mahimmanci ga bincike na gaba shine bincika yadda tasirin batsa ke tasiri game da halin da ake ciki a wurin aiki irin su zamantakewar halin da ke aiki. Har ila yau, muna ƙarfafa bincike na gaba don magance abubuwan da za su iya rage yawan mummunan tasirin kallon batsa a kan dabi'un rashin fahimta. Bincike na gaba na iya magance tasirin kallon batsa yana da wasu yanke shawara, irin su kalubalen haɗari ko yanke shawara na kudi ko kuma dabi'un da wasu fasaha suka karfafa, kamar skepticism, ƙarfafa ko haɓaka dangantakar dake tsakanin batsa da yanke shawara marasa tunani. Wani bangare da ba mu iya ɗauka a cikin bincikenmu shi ne sakamakon cewa al'amuran aikin aiki, irin su ka'idojin halaye da al'adun al'ada, suna da dangantaka. Neman bincike na gaba zai iya magance yadda tsarin aikin aiki ke shafar dangantakar dake tsakanin kallon batsa da rashin dabi'a. A ƙarshe, ba mu bincika hanyar haɓaka ta hanyar rashin dabi'ar kirki don kallon batsa da kuma rashin haɓakawa kamar yadda wannan maɓallin amsawa yake ba tare da iyakar abin da muke nazarin ba, amma wannan zai zama hanya mai mahimmanci ga bincike na gaba.

Bayanan kalmomi

  1. 1.

    Misalai da muke ba su mayar da hankali kan gundumar gwamnati saboda an saba wa manufofin manufofi a fili, yayin da kasuwanni sukan iya ɓoye wa jama'a ainihin dalilai na ƙarewa da sauran abubuwan da suka faru.

  2. 2.
  3. 3.

    Sauran ayyukan sune gaskatawa na kirki, lakabi mai ladabi, kwatantawa mai kyau, kawar da alhakin, rarraba alhakin, rashin kula da sakamakon, da kuma zargi.

  4. 4.

    Yin amfani da hankali shi ne tsarin kulawa da hankali da kuma magance wasu kamar abubuwa ko a matsayin hanyar kawo ƙarshen maimakon mutane (Papadaki ; Saul ).

  5. 5.

    Dangane da halin mutum wanda bai dace ba ya haifar da sakamako na kungiyar, rahoton 2017 SEC na Dokar Amincewa ya nuna an kashe kimanin dala biliyan 3.7 a cikin 2017 da kuma wadannan ayyuka na yin aiki, 73% sun kasance kawai ne kawai a cikin kamfanin. Kowane mutum ya aikata zamba da kuma rashin dabi'a na mutum ya ƙãra yawan hadarin (https://www.sec.gov/files/enforcement-annual-report-2017.pdf).

  6. 6.

    Kamar yadda aka bayyana a baya a cikin hanyar hanyoyin takardarmu, muna ayyana hotunan batsa ga mahalarta kamar haka “Abubuwan batsa sune bidiyo, mujallu, shafukan intanet, hotuna, littattafai, da sauransu waɗanda ke bayanin mutanen da ke yin jima’i, suna nuna bayyanannun hotuna na tsiraici ko mutanen da ke yin jima’i, ko nuna wani fim ko odiyo wanda ke bayanin yadda mutane ke yin jima'i. ”

  7. 7.

    Mun koma masu karatu masu sha'awa don taƙaitaccen bincike kan batsa (duba Manning , Owens et al. , da kuma Short et al. ). Binciken farko ya nuna cewa hotunan batsa yana rage girman kai (Willoughby et al. ), ƙara yawan matakan ciki (Willoughby et al. ), ya haifar da tsammanin jima'i (McKee ), da kuma ƙara yawan tashin hankali (Malamuth da Ceniti ). Bugu da ƙari kuma, batsa ta rage yawan haɗin kai da kuma ƙara yawan bangaskiya (Maddox et al. ) da kuma rage girman kai (Stewart da Szymanski) ).

  8. 8.

    Dubi alal misali Lawyer (), Negash et al. (), Bitrus da Valkenburg (), Van den Bergh et al. (), da kuma Wilson da Daly ().

  9. 9.

    Sauran wasu hanyoyi guda bakwai sune gaskatawa da dabi'un, ladabi mai ladabi, kwatantawa mai kyau, kawar da alhakin, rarraba nauyin alhakin, rashin kula da sakamakon, da kuma zargi.

  10. 10.

    Yawancin lokuta ana amfani da wasu kalmomin waɗanda suke da alaƙa da haɗuwa da mutuntaka ciki har da ƙwarewa, ƙasƙanci, da mamaya (McKee ).

  11. 11.

    Alal misali, a cikin 2015 Google, Intel, da kuma Apple sun ware Naira 500 da yawa don biyan kuɗi, wanda ya haɗa da hayar mata (Guynn ). Bugu da ƙari, a matsayin na 2017, a kan kamfanonin 70 sun sanar da manufofin da suke da ita don kara yawan ma'aikatan mata (Huang ).

  12. 12.

    Nuna kusanci yana nufin kusanci da mutum yana da wani abu ko mutum (Trope da Liberman ). Jones '() samfurin halayyar kirkirar kirki, yana nufin na kusanci wani wakili na halin kirki yana jin wadanda suke da shawarar yanke shawara. Jones () yayi jayayya da dangantaka mai kyau tsakanin kusanci da kuma halin kirki da kuma cewa yayin da halin kirki yake ƙaruwa, halayyar kirki zai faru sau da yawa. Binciken da aka riga ya nuna ya kasance akwai dangantaka mai ma'ana tsakanin kusanci da rashin daidaituwa (Watley da Mayu ; Yam da Reynolds ).

  13. 13.

    Duk da yake ba mu da wata mahimmanci na ma'auni, zamu sami bambanci tsakanin yanayin biyu a cikin shekaru, matsayin aure, ilimi, matsayi na aiki (aiki ko a'a), matakin samun kudin shiga da kuma yadda ake amfani dasu da batsa. Saboda haka, ba mu da wata dalili da za mu yi imanin cewa bazuwar ba ta ci nasara ba wajen ba da izini ga mutane marasa rinjaye daidai da yanayin biyu.

  14. 14.

    Kodayake hanyar sadarwa 3 mai ban sha'awa ne, ba zamu iya gano shi ba saboda yadda ba a iya nazarin mu ba. Duk da haka, don cikakke, mun haɗa shi a cikin tsarinmu na rashin fahimta kuma muna ƙarfafa bincike na gaba don bincika wannan mahada gaba.

  15. 15.

    Ƙungiyar ta kammala bayanai don wannan binciken da kuma wani, binciken da ba tare da dangantaka ba, wanda ya mayar da hankali ga gaskatawar siyasa. An gudanar da gwajin siyasa na farko. Mun gwada don bambance-bambance a cikin bincikenmu dangane da magunguna daban-daban a cikin sauran gwaji kuma muka gano cewa ba shi da wani tasiri akan kowane matakanmu.

  16. 16.

    Regnerus et al. () ta yi rahoton yawan kashi-kashi. Har ila yau, a cikin bincike ba tare da lissafi ba, muna bincika kididdiga ta jinsi da kuma lura cewa 44% na maza suna kallon hotuna (watau, duba shi a wasu lokatai, akai-akai ko akai-akai). Lissafi mai dacewa ga mata a samfurinmu shine 20%. Labaran jinsi na raba gardama a Regnerus et al. () sun kasance daidai da kididdigarmu (watau 46% na maza da 16% mata suna kallon hotuna a binciken su).

  17. 17.

    Mun lura cewa mun gudanar da bincike guda akan MTurk kuma munyi rahoton sakamakon ga dukkan mahalarta wanda muka samo cikakkun bayanai. Masu shiga sun ɗauki kimanin 22.7 min don kammala aikin kuma an biya su $ 2.00 don shiga.

  18. 18.

    Mun lura cewa wannan aikin ya ci nasara a wajen yin la'akari da shawarar kirki a wani binciken (misali, Gubler et al. ).

  19. 19.

    Muna da ma'auni guda biyu don iyakancewar dogara, ko mai halarta shirka aiki (watau, bai kula da cikakken bidiyon) ba ko sun yi ƙarya game da shi. Mun tattara matakan aiwatar da tsarin bayan ma'auni na farko na dogara mai dogara amma kafin na biyu. Matakan biyu na dogara mai dogara shine 100% hade (watau, duk mahalarta suka kalli kallon bidiyon sunyi karya game da kallon bidiyon). Saboda haka, ma'anar da muka tambayi ma'aunin matakai ba ya nuna cewa yana da tasiri a kan halin kirki na mahalarta.

  20. 20.

    Mun ƙididdige haruffan Cronbach don abubuwan da ke motsa jiki na hudu da ake amfani dasu don ƙididdige ƙaddamar da ƙaddamarwa kuma yana da "kyakkyawan sakamako" na 0.908 (Kline ).

  21. 21.

    Muna amfani da sikelin ladabi daga Gubler et al. (). Ko da yake ba a bayar da rahoto a binciken su ba, marubuta sun gaya mana cewa ƙimar da aka yi a cikin Gubler et al. () shi ne 2.12 wanda ya kasance daidai da ƙimar gaske a cikin nazarin mu na 2.10. Kodayake yawan adadin 2.10 ya ƙasaita, akwai babban bambanci kuma mahimmanci yana da muhimmanci fiye da ƙananan sikelin yana nuna cewa tasirin ƙasa ba damuwa bane. Matsanancin dabi'u suna nuna cewa mafi yawan mutane suna zaton wasu suna "mai yiwuwa" ba su fuskanci motsin rai na biyu ba. Mene ne mafi muhimmanci fiye da ma'anar wannan ƙwayar shine cewa akwai bambance-bambance a tsakanin yanayi, wanda ya nuna cewa magudi dinmu ya haifar da karuwa cikin lalata.

  22. 22.

    Amfanin tarin yawaita farashi yana wakiltar farashin rangwame wanda mahalarta suka sauya daga zabar ladaran nan zuwa sakamako mai jinkirta (Kirby da Maraković ). Saboda haka, dabi'u mafi girma suna wakiltar buƙata don samun sakamako mai sauri. Mun lura cewa yawan kuɗin kuɗin da muka bayar na rahoton (0.02) ya fi yadda yawancin kuɗi da aka samu a Kirby da Maraković () (0.007). Wannan bambancin na iya kasancewa saboda bambance-bambance na tsara kamar yadda aka gudanar da bincikenmu sama da shekaru 20 bayan Kirby da Maraković ().

  23. 23.

    Idan aka kwatanta da samfurin dacewa da samfurin haɓaka, an gyara R2 Ƙididdigar da ake da shi a kan rikice-rikice na Lying on Recall Pornography shi ne 0.026, na Lying on Dehumanization ne 0.075, da kuma Lying on Recall Pornography da Dehumanization ne 0.082.

  24. 24.

    Misalan waɗanda suka ba da rahoton ba sa kallon hotunan batsa sun haɗa da “Ba na kallon hotunan batsa” ko “Ba na kallon hotunan batsa. Kallonta ya ci karo da abubuwan da na yi imani da su. ” Misalan waɗanda suke kallon batsa lokacin da wasu suka nuna su sun haɗa da “Akwai wani bidiyo a Facebook wanda ya yi kama da batsa. Na kadu kuma ban yarda cewa batsa ce ba don haka sai na danna shi. Ya kasance batsa daga wani shahararren gidan yanar gizon da ke nuna musu suna yin jima'i. Na kalla ne kawai don 'yan dakikoki saboda ban kalli batsa ba "ko" Lokaci na karshe da na kalli hotunan batsa ba zato ba tsammani, lokacin da na ga an saka hotunan batsa a cikin dashboard dina. Banyi niyyar ganinta ba, kuma kayan sun zama marasa kyau. Na zagaya ta baya. ” Misalan wadanda suka bayyana hotunan batsa sun hada da “Kwanakin baya na bude folda a pc dina wanda yake tarin hotunan tsiraici. Na ga abin batsa ne don neman tsira game da mata masu kallon al'ada na shekaru daban-daban. Na kwashe kimanin minti 10 "ko" Na kalli batsa mai ban dariya na kusan awa ɗaya. Na kalli jima'i kai tsaye, jima'i na dodo, wadanda suka shafi sanannun zane mai ban dariya da kuma madigo. Ba bidiyo bane ko hotuna ne amma abubuwan ban dariya ne akan layi. Na kallesu a wayata. ”

  25. 25.

    Har ila yau, muna gwada ko masu halartar batsa suna tunawa da yanayin da ba su kallon batsa ba, sun fi kuskure su yi karya fiye da masu shiga cikin batsa ba su tuna da yanayin ba. Sakamakon ya nuna cewa babu wani bambanci tsakanin waɗannan kungiyoyi biyu (p darajar> 0.10).

  26. 26.

    Bambance-bambance a sakamakonmu idan aka kwatanta da Buzzell () game da ilimi da samun kudin shiga na iya rinjayi karatun mu ta amfani da bayanan shekaru 15 bayan bayanan da aka tattara a Buzzell ().

Notes

Godiya

Muna gode wa Scott Emett, Kip Holderness, da kuma masu halartar taron bitar a Jami'ar Atlantic Atlantic don bayar da shawarwari da shawarwari.

Daidaitawa da ka'idodi

Rikici na sha'awa

Dukkan marubuta uku sun bayyana cewa basu da rikice-rikice.

Tabbatar da Haɓaka

Dukkan hanyoyin da aka gudanar a binciken da suka shafi mahalarta mutane sunyi daidai da ka'idojin ka'idoji da / ko kwamitin binciken bincike na kasa tare da sanarwar 1964 Helsinki da kuma gyare-gyare na baya ko ka'idodi masu dacewa.

ƙididdigewa yarda

An samu izinin sanarwar daga dukan mahalarta da aka haɗa a cikin binciken.

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