Optogenetic ma le chemogenetic malamalama i le mafaufauga o vaisu taumafa (2014)

Front Behav Neurosci. 2014 Fep 28;8:57. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00057. eCollection 2014.

Krashes MJ, Kravitz AV.

lē faʻatino

O le tino puta e su'esu'eina ile falema'i ile fua faigofie e fa'atatau i le mamafa ma le maualuga ole tagata (fa'ailoga o le tino), ae e feso'ota'i ma le tele o isi fa'ailoga o amioga e foliga mai e fa'atupu neura. I tausaga talu ai nei, ua fesiligia ai e le tele o saienitisi pe o suiga tutusa o amioga ma le mafaufau e tupu i vaisu o fualaau faasaina ma le gaʻo, ma tuʻuina atu ai le toʻatele e faʻatalanoaina le ono mafai ona "vaisu meaʻai". O le alualu i luma i le malamalama i le taamilosaga o loʻo faʻavae uma ai le fafagaina o amioga ma vaisu o fualaau faasaina e mafai ona faʻatagaina i tatou e mafaufau i lenei fesili mai le vaaiga o le neural circuits, e faʻamaeʻa ai vaaiga tau amio. O iinei, matou te iloiloina le alualu i luma i le malamalama i nei taʻaloga ma faʻaaogaina e mafaufau ai pe o le tusia o faʻatusatusaga i vaisu o fualaau faasaina e aoga tele mo le malamalama i nisi ituaiga o meaʻai.

uputatala: puta, vaisu, optogenetics, meaai, fafagaina, arcuate, striatum

O vaisu o fualaau ose ose ma'i tumau, toe fa'afo'i mai e fa'aalia i fa'ailoga fa'aletino e pei o le fa'apalepale ma le fa'amavae, fa'apea fo'i fa'alagona ma uiga fa'aalia e pei o lagona o le tu'inanau ma le fa'atosina saili taui. O le faapalepale o lo'o fa'amatalaina ai se fa'alavelave e mana'omia ai le maualuga o tui o se vaila'au ina ia maua ai se a'afiaga, a'o fa'ailoga fa'amavae e fa'amatala ai le tele o a'afiaga fa'aletino ma fa'alagona e tupu pe a le toe tagofia e se vaisu se vaila'au. O suiga o amioga e fesoʻotaʻi ma vaisu vailaʻau e mafai ona faʻavasega lautele i ni vaega autu se tolu (Koob ma Volkow, 2010). Muamua, o vaila'au fa'asaina ma fa'ailoilo fa'atasi e fa'aolaina ai ni a'afiaga malosi i faiga fa'amalosi, fa'aosoina amioga fa'a'au'auna e fa'amalosi. Lona lua, o vaisu o fualaau fa'asaina e fa'atasi ma faiga fa'aletonu fa'aletonu, lea e masani ona fai ma taofi i amioga. Ma le mea mulimuli, o vaisu o fualaau faasaina e faʻapipiʻiina e tulaga faʻalagona le lelei e pei o le popole ma le atuatuvale, lea e mafai ona avea ma faʻaosofia e faʻateleina ai le faʻaaogaina o fualaau faasaina. O le mea moni, o tagata ma manu e faʻamaʻi faʻasaina e sili ona faigofie ona toe faʻafoʻi i taimi o faʻalavelave faʻalagona poʻo faigata (Epstein et al., 2006; Koob, 2008; Erb, 2010; Sinha et al., 2011). O nei vasega e tolu o fa'ailoga e mafai ona atagia mai ai suiga i le va'aiga eseese, lea e galulue fa'atasi e fa'afaigofie le fa'aogaina o vaila'au i tagata ua fai ma vaisu. O le a matou faʻamatalaina suʻesuʻega optogenetic ma chemogenetic talu ai nei na tuʻuina mai ai faʻafanua faʻapitoa o le mea e ono i ai lenei matagaluega.

O le faaupuga "vaisu meaʻai" na faʻaofiina i totonu o tusitusiga i le 1950s (Randolph, 1956), ae e itiiti ni suʻesuʻega na lomia i lenei mataupu i le 60 tausaga mulimuli ane. Nai lo lena, o le toʻatele o tagata suʻesuʻe na faʻatalanoaina vaisu i le taimi lea (Ata (Figure1) .1). Ua suia lenei mea i tausaga talu ai nei, lea na amata ai ona suʻesuʻeina e se numera toʻaitiiti ae o loʻo faʻatupulaia le au suʻesuʻe le tagofia o meaʻai. O tagata suʻesuʻe faʻaonaponei o loʻo i ai i se tulaga lelei e suʻesuʻe ai lenei soʻotaga, ona o le Iunaite Setete ma le tele o isi atunuʻu ua oʻo i totonu o se faʻamaʻi oona e tatau ona foʻia (Centers for Disease Control, 2013), ma le taliaina e le sosaiete o le "vaisu o meaʻai" o se mea masani, e pei ona molimauina i le tele o vaega lagolago mo le soona 'ai, o le tele oi latou e faʻavae i luga o le 12-step framework ua atiae e foia ai fualaau faasaina ma le ava malosi (Weiner, 1998; Russell-Mayhew et al., 2010). O le mea moni, o le tele o fuataga o le faʻaaogaina o vailaʻau (aemaise lava le ulaula tapaa) i totonu o le US ua faʻaititia i le tele o tausaga talu ai, ae o le faʻateleina o le tino puta ua faʻatupulaʻia pea (Centers for Disease Control, 2013).

Ata 1 

Numera o pepa na lomia i le tausaga mai le 1912–2012 o loo i ai le faaupuga “vaisu o fualaau faasaina” po o le “vaisu o meaai” i le ulutala po o le otootoga. I'uga mai se Pubmed su'esu'e ile 11/08/13, fa'aoga meafaigaluega mai le Neuroscience Information ...

E pei o vaisu fualaau, o le puta ose ma'i lavelave ma le tele o mafua'aga ma fa'ailoga. Mo se faʻataʻitaʻiga, o se vaega toʻaitiiti o tagata lapopoa o loʻo i ai suiga monogenic receptors (e pei o le leptin ma le melanocortin receptors) e mafua ai le mamafa tele (Farooqi ma O'Rahilly, 2008). Ae ui i lea, o le tele o meaʻai na tupu i le 30 tausaga talu ai e le talitonuina o se taunuuga o suiga o le monogenic, ae o suiga i a tatou meaʻai ma olaga i lenei taimi (Farooqi ma O'Rhilly, 2008). O faʻailoga ma faʻailoga e fesoʻotaʻi ma lenei laʻau e mafai ona vaʻavaʻai i vaega tutusa e pei o vaisu fualaau: faʻamalosi faʻamalosi, faigata ona pulea le taumafaina o meaʻai, ma le tulaʻi mai o tulaga le lelei o lagona e pei o le popole ma le atuatuvale (Kenny, 2011a; Sharma ma Fulton, 2013; Sinha ma Jastreboff, 2013; Volkow et al., 2013). O le mea lea, e ono mafai e le matagaluega suiga o loʻo faʻavaeina ai nei faiga i le tino puta e tutusa ma mea e tutupu i taimi o vaisu. Ae peitai, e taua le matauina, e pei o vaisu fualaau faasaina, o tagata lapopoa patino e masani ona faʻaalia vaega o nei faʻafitauli, e foliga mai e faʻaalia e se tagata faʻailoga maʻoti eseese, ma suiga i le matagaluega. E le gata i lea, o le fafagaina e faʻalagolago i le homeostatic feeding circuitry lea e taua tele mo le ola, o se eseesega ese mai vaisu fualaau.

I le manatu, o le fafagaina e masani ona manatu o se mea e maua mai i fesoʻotaʻiga tutoʻatasi e lua e tuʻufaʻatasia ma pulea le taumafa, fiaʻai ma le fiafia (Kenny, 2011b). I le faʻaopoopoga i faʻasologa o taui e ono fesoasoani i vaisu ma le gaʻo, o le homeostatic system e faʻatonutonuina ai meaʻai e faʻatatau i le caloric manaʻomia e ala i le faʻasalalauina o mea taua e pei o le kulukose, gaʻo gaʻo saoloto, leptin, ghrelin ma le inisalini (Myers ma Olson, 2012; Atana, 2013; Hellström, 2013). O nei mea e fa'aogaina ai le hypothalamic ma le brainstem circuits e fa'alauiloa pe fa'alumaina tali fafaga, ma fa'apea ona saofagā i le paleni masani o le malosi. O se tasi lea o auala e ese ai le lapo'a mai vaisu o fualaau faasaina, ona o le mea'ai e mafai ona atagia mai ai suiga i le fafaga fafaga homeostatic, e faaopoopo atu i suiga i le faasologa o taui. O le mea taua, o mea faigaluega fou ua atiaʻe e mafai ai e le neuroscientists ona faʻatautaia taʻavale ma le saʻo ma le faʻatonuga e leʻi tupu muamua (Fenno et al., 2011; Rogan ma Roth, 2011; Tye ma Deisseroth, 2012). I lenei iloiloga, matou te otootoina suʻesuʻega talu ai nei i luga o le matagaluega o loʻo faʻavaeina uma le fafagaina ma vaisu o fualaau faasaina, ma talanoaina le maualuga o le auiliiliga o lenei matagaluega e mafai ona faʻamalamalamaina ai mea tutusa ma eseesega i le va o le gaʻo ma vaisu.

Circuitry mediating homeostatic fafaga

O le su'esu'eina o faiga ole taumafa ile homeostatic e lu'itau ona ole fa'agesegese ole kinetics fa'aletino ole tapula'a e fa'afeso'ota'i le suiga ile va o le fia'ai ma le maoona. E mana'omia le fa'asa'olotoina o Hormone mai a'ano o mea'ai, malaga i le fai'ai ma fa'ailo neu e lagona ai mea'ai e fa'atonu ai le su'eina o mea'ai ma le taumafaina. O nei suiga faaumiumi i le le lava o le malosi ua matua fa'alavelaveina ai le su'esu'eina o feso'ota'iga sao i le va o faiga fa'alagona fa'aletonu ma le va'aiga o fai'ai i lalo. I le itu-laasaga i lenei faigata, manipulations o molecularly circumscribed nutrient-sensing neurons e mafai ona faʻaaogaina e faʻamaonia ai le pulea tutotonu o le fafagaina. O le taimi lava e iloa ai, o le afferent ma efferent auala e faʻafetaui ai le fiaʻai ma le maoona e mafai ona toe suʻesuʻeina auiliili (Sternson, 2013).

O le arcuate nucleus (ARC) o le hypothalamus e aofia ai le tele o ituaiga sela eseese o loʻo tuʻufaʻatasia e tuʻufaʻatasia faʻamaufaʻailoga toto e faʻasaʻolotoina mai i le peripheral tissues, aʻo taoto le ARC i le pito i lalo o le faiʻai e lata ane i le ventricle lona tolu ma le tulaga maualuga. . Aemaise lava, lua vaega eseese ARC subpopulations, orexigenic agouti-related protein (AGRP) ma anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons ua matua fesoʻotaʻi ma suiga i meaʻai. O ituaiga eseese uma e lua e faʻafefeteina ma faʻalavelaveina e le leptin hormone e maua mai le gaʻo (Myers ma Olson, 2012) ma le malosi e fa'ailoa ai le kulukose (Claret et al., 2007; Fioramonti et al., 2007) ma le inisalini (Konner et al., 2007; Hill et al., 2010). E le gata i lea, o le AGRP neurons o loʻo faʻagaoioia tuusaʻo e le ghrelin e faʻatupuina ai le fiaʻai (Cowley et al., 2003; van den Top et al., 2004). Faʻateleina le faʻamalosia o latou sao i le 'ai, tui faʻafomaʻi i totonu o le faiʻai o le neuromodulators na tuʻuina atu e le AGRP neurons, o le peptides AGRP ma le neuropeptide Y (NPY) faʻateleina le fafagaina (Semjonous et al., 2009), ae o le α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) ma le adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), faʻasaʻoloto mai le POMC neurons, faʻaitiitia le taumafa taumafa (Poggioli et al., 1986).

Optogenetic poʻo chemogenetic (Aponte et al., 2011; Krashes et al., 2011, 2013; Atasoy et al., 2012) o le faʻagaoioia o neu AGRP e lava lea e faʻavave ai le taumafaina o meaʻai, e oʻo lava i manu e tumu i calorically, faʻafesoʻotaʻi le faʻagaoioia o nei neu i le lagona o le fiaʻai ma le fafagaina mulimuli ane. O le mea taua, o le maualuga o le taumafaina e faʻalagolago i le numera o neurons faʻafiafia ma faʻaosofia taimi (Aponte et al., 2011). O le faʻagaoioia faifaipea o nei neu ma le mafuaʻaga o le hyperphagia ma le faʻaitiitia o le faʻaaluina o le malosi e taʻitaʻia ai le mamafa o le mamafa, faʻatasi ma le faʻateleina o gaʻo (Krashes et al., 2011). E le gata i lea, o le neuromediators na tuʻuina atu e le AGRP neurons e faʻauluina vaega fafaga faʻatasi ma le GABA ma / poʻo le NPY faʻalauteleina le taumafa taumafa ae o le peptide AGRP e faʻapipiʻiina le taumafa i luga o le tuai, fua masani (Atasoy et al., 2012; Krashes et al., 2013). O le mea e malie ai, o manu o loʻo i ai le faʻamalosia o le AGRP neurons i le taimi o le malologa masani, i le leai o ni meaʻai, faʻaalia le malosi, le faʻaogaina o gaioiga o locomotor lea e matua suia atoa i luma o meaʻai, faʻamalosia malosi se matafaioi mo nei neu (Krashes et al., 2011). E le gata i lea, o le AGRP-induction mamao e matua faateleina ai le naunau o se manu e galue mo meaʻai i se suʻega masani o le nosepoke (Krashes et al., 2011).

Ina ia suʻesuʻeina le sao o galuega a le AGRP i luga o le fafagaina, o faʻataʻitaʻiga axon umi-vaʻaia na faʻamalosia ma faʻataunuʻuina ai meaʻai na iloiloina. O le faʻaogaina o le faʻaogaina o laina i totonu o le paraventricular (PVN) hypothalamus na faʻaalia ai le fafagaina i se tutusa tutusa e faʻatonuina ai le faʻaogaina o le AGRP somatic, e faʻaalia ai se sao taua mo neu i lenei nofoaga faiʻai i le faʻatonuina o le faʻailoga o le manaʻo (Atasoy et al., 2012). Ina ia faʻamaonia faʻamaonia lenei mea, e lua ituaiga o chemogenetic inhibition na faʻaaogaina e faʻafilemu ai le tele o PVN neurons, ma mafua ai le faʻateleina. ad lib taumafa taumafa ma le faaosofia e galue mo meaai. E le gata i lea, o suʻesuʻega faʻapitoa e faʻafefe ai le AGRP i le PVN ma le pito i lalo o le PVN neurons ua faʻailogaina e se fasi oxytocin (OXT) faʻalauiloaina o le kiore na faʻapipiʻiina faʻatasi ma le channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) ma faʻapipiʻiina i le taimi lava e tasi, faʻaliliu atoatoa le AgRP → PVN-evoked faʻateleina i totonu. taumafa taumafa. Mulimuli ane, e ala i le faʻaogaina o faʻaogaina opto-ma chemogenetic manipulations faʻatasi ma vailaʻau faʻafomaʻi, o isi vaega pito i lalo ole AGRP neurons na aʻafia i le faʻaosoina o amioga fafaga. Talu ai nei, na faʻaalia ai o le AGRP axonal projections i le moega o le stria terminalis (BNST), lateral hypothalamus (LH) poʻo le paraventricular thalamus (PVT), faʻaopoopo i le PVN, ua lava e ave ai le fafagaina (Betley et al., 2013; mana'omia le fa'aopoopoina o lenei ref PMID: 24315102). O le mea e sili ona taua, o suʻesuʻega axonal axonal AGRP e faʻatatau i vaega eseese o le faiʻai faʻapitoa e afua mai i vaega faʻapitoa, lea o le "tasi-i-le-tasi" axon collateral configuration mo AGRP neurons e pulea le fesoʻotaʻiga i lalo (Betley et al., 2013).

I le isi itu i suʻesuʻega faʻataʻitaʻiga le lava AGRP, o meafaigaluega na faʻaaogaina e taofiofia ai neu AGRP na faʻaalia ai lo latou manaʻomia i le fafagaina (Krashes et al., 2011), lea e tutusa ma le tali atu o le hypophagic i manu pe a maeʻa le tuʻuina atu o nei sela (Gropp et al., 2005; Luquet et al., 2005). O lenei auala faʻafefeteina neural na taʻitaʻia ai le faʻamaoniaina o le anorexia circuit i le parabrachial nucleus (PBN; Wu et al., 2009), lea e maua ai mea faʻalavelave mai le AGRP neurons (Atasoy et al., 2012) ma faʻalavelave faʻalavelave faʻapitoa mai le nucleus o le vaega nofo toatasi (NTS), lea e faʻagaoioia e ala i serotonergic projections mai le raphe magnus ma obscurus (Wu et al., 2012). Ae maise lava, o le faʻaumatiaina o le glutamatergic signaling mai le PBN e faʻateleina ai meaʻai, e faʻaalia ai le taua o le leo fiafia mai lenei vaega faʻapitoa i le taʻitaʻia o amioga fafaga (Wu et al., 2012). Ina ia faʻaalia atili o le PBN o loʻo i ai le faʻatonuga autu o le manaʻo, o se taamilosaga fou, faʻailogaina e calcitonin gene-related peptide-expressing neurons, o loʻo faʻaalia i le ogatotonu tutotonu o le amygdala ua faʻaalia e faʻatalanoaina tali fafaga (Carter et al., 2013).

O faʻataʻitaʻiga POMC tuusaʻo o loʻo i ai le faʻafeagai o aʻafiaga i le manaʻo e pei o le optogenetic ma le chemogenetic masani (Aponte et al., 2011; Zhan et al., 2013) fa'agaoioia o lenei faitau aofa'i o le ARC e fa'aitiitia ai taumafa. O lenei aʻafiaga e manaʻomia ai le faʻamaonia o le melanocortin, ona o isumu o loʻo i ai le faʻaogaina o le melanocortin-4 ua le mafai ona faʻaalia lenei tali hypophagic (Aponte et al., 2011). E le gata i lea, o le malosi o le faʻaosofiaina o le POMC neurons i le NTS e faʻaitiitia ai meaʻai ma le kinetics (itula) faʻavavevave faʻatasi ma le faʻagesegese o le ARC-faʻaalia POMC neu (aso) (Zhan et al., 2013). Ae ui i lea, e naʻo le mea mulimuli e manaʻomia mo le faʻatalanoaina o le satiety ona o le faʻamaʻiina o le ARC-faʻaalia POMC neurons e mafua ai le hyperphagia ma le gaʻo (Zhan et al., 2013). O isi su'esu'ega su'esu'ega e lua i lalo ma ta'amilosaga pito i luga e fa'atonutonu ai nei AGRP ma POMC neu e mana'omia e fa'ailoa ai se fa'atinoga, fa'asologa o feso'ota'iga e fa'atonutonu ai le mana'o.

E ui o lenei galuega mataʻina ua faʻamalamalamaina le tele o vaega taua e pulea ai le fafagaina o le homeostatic i lalo o tulaga masani, e le o manino pe o le palasitika i totonu o lenei matagaluega e saofagā i suiga o amioga e fesoʻotaʻi ma le tino puta, pe o le tulimataʻiina o lenei matagaluega o le a aoga mo le umi o le paʻu mamafa ( Halford ma Harrold, 2012; Alvarez-Castro et al., 2013; Hellström, 2013). E ui ina tele mea'ai a tagata lapopoa, e le o manino pe maua e tagata lapopoa ni lagona malolosi o le fiaaai po o le faaitiitia o le lagona o le maona, i tua atu o le manaʻoga o le physiological e 'ai atili e tausia ai le tele o le tino (French et al., 2014). O suʻesuʻega i le lumanaʻi e mafai ona suʻesuʻeina le faʻaogaina o nei tagata neural, faʻapea foʻi ma faiga faʻapipiʻi i totonu o nei neu e foia ai lenei mea. O le mea e mataʻina ai, o se suʻesuʻega talu ai nei na faʻaalia ai le faʻaleagaina o le AgRP neural activity mai le atinaʻeina poʻo le faʻamaʻiina o nei neurons ua faʻaleleia ai amioga suʻesuʻe ma faʻateleina tali i cocaine, e faʻaalia ai o suiga i nei neu e mafai ona saofagā i amioga e fesoʻotaʻi ma isi vaega faiʻai (Dietrich et al. , 2012). O fa'ata'ita'iga fa'asolosolo o nei ta'amilosaga e mafai ona fa'ailoa ai le tulaga o lo'o suia ai nei ta'amilosaga i le lapo'a, fa'apea fo'i ma a latou togafitiga mo le pa'u o le mamafa mo se taimi umi.

I tua atu o le fafagaina o le homeostatic

O faʻamaoniga mo le gafatia o manu e auai i le fafagaina e le o le homeostatic na faʻaalia i le faʻamalosia o le eletise masani ma faʻataʻitaʻiga o manuʻa o le hypothalamus lateral (Delgado ma Anand, 1953; Margules ma Matua, 1962; Atamamai, 1974; Markou ma Frank, 1987), lea e mafai ona mafua ai ona 'ai e rodents e sili atu nai lo mea e manaʻomia ile homeostatic. O galuega talu ai nei ua faʻamalamalamaina e faʻapea e faʻalagolago i luga o faʻalavelave faʻalavelave mai le BNST, faʻailogaina e le Vesicluar GABA transporter (VGAT) i le LH (Jennings et al., 2013). O le fa'aosofia o le fa'aogaina o nei fa'aaliga GABAergic na fa'aosofia ai le fafagaina malosi i isumu fa'amalieina ma le taimi na fa'aalu i totonu o se sone o mea'ai, a'o le fa'asaina o nei fa'ata'ita'iga na fa'aitiitia ai le fafagaina o isumu fia'ai. O le mea e malie ai, o nei bidirectional optogenetic perturbations na faʻaalia ai o lenei GABABNST→GlutamateLH sa i ai se aafiaga taua i le valence faaosofia. O le faʻaogaina o lenei auala i se faʻataʻitaʻiga o le orexigenic na faʻaalia ai le manaʻo, faʻamalieina tali e pei ona iloiloina e faʻaaoga ai le taimi tonu e fiafia i ai ma suʻega faʻaosofia o le tagata lava ia, ae o le faʻaogaina i se anorexigenic e faʻaalia ai ni tali faʻafefe (Jennings et al., 2013). O le mea e mataʻina ai, o le suʻesuʻega lava lea e tasi na faʻaalia uma ai le manaʻomia ma le lava mo se glutamatergic sub-population o neurons i le LH faailogaina i le faʻamatalaga o Vglut2 (glutamate transporter 2; Jennings et al., 2013). E ui o le faʻaogaina o le LH e mafai ona maua ai le tele o aʻafiaga i luga o amioga faʻaosofia (e aofia ai le faʻagata atoatoa o le fafagaina) (Hoebel, 1971; Atamamai, 1974), optogenetic stimulation o nei VGATBNST→VGLUTLH faʻaaliga poʻo le faʻaogaina tuusaʻo optogenetic o le VGLUTLH neu na fa'atupuina fa'apitoa le fafaga fafaga, fa'ailoa mai o fa'aaliga manino o le hypothalamic afferent po'o le faitau aofa'i o neu LH e ono lagolagoina vaega eseese o le fafaga. O lenei manatu ua matauina mo le tele o tausaga (Apoto, 1974), peita'i o le tula'i mai o mea faigaluega fou ma metotia ua mafai ai e tagata su'esu'e ona malamalama atili po'o fea le faitau aofa'i o neural ma fa'ata'ita'iga e lagolagoina vaega eseese o le fafaga.

Tu'inanau ma le taumafaina fa'amalosi o mea'ai taui

O le tu'inanau o se vaega autu o vaisu o fualaau faasaina, lea e talitonuina e faavae ai le taumafaina malosi o fualaau faasaina (Koob ma Volkow, 2010). O tagata lapopoa e masani ona oʻo i le manaʻo mo meaʻai, ma o le taamilosaga e fesoʻotaʻi ma le tuʻinanau i le tino puta e foliga mai e tutusa ma vaisu o fualaau faasaina (Avena et al., 2008; Jastreboff et al., 2013). E aofia ai le dopaminergic circuitry, ma fetuunaiga i nei fausaga e foliga mai e nafa ma le faʻateleina o le tuʻinanau i vaisu ma le gaʻo (Volkow et al., 2002; Wang et al., 2002). O le faitau aofa'i tele o neurons dopaminergic e nonofo i le ogatotonu, i le substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) ma le ventral tegmental area (VTA). Optogenetic activation o midbrain dopaminergic neurons i isumu na faafaigofieina le faʻamalosia lelei i le taimi o le suʻeina o meaʻai i se galuega galue (Adamantidis et al., 2011) faʻaopoopo i se suʻega faʻapitoa e sili ona fiafia i ai nofoaga (Tsai et al., 2009). E tutusa lelei le faʻamalosia o meatotino, e pei ona iloiloina e le intracranial self-stimulation, o nei neurons na matauina i isumu (Witten et al., 2011). GABAergic neurons o le VTA faʻalavelave saʻo le dopaminergic VTA sela ma optogenetic activation o le muamua e lava lea e faʻaoso ai le faʻafefe o le nofoaga faʻapea foʻi ma amioga faʻataunuʻu (Tan et al., 2012; van Zessen et al., 2012). O le mea e ofo ai, i tulaga o loʻo faʻaaogaina i le suʻesuʻega a Adamantidis, o le faʻamalosia o faʻamaʻi dopaminergic naʻo ia e leʻi faʻamalosia, e ui lava na faʻamalosia ai le faʻamalosia lelei o amioga faʻatumauina meaʻai (Adamantidis et al., 2011). E ta'u mai ai e iai se mafutaga fa'apitoa e mafai ona iai i le va o le fa'amalosia i totonu o le fafaga, ina ia maua ai e manu se tulaga maualalo mo le a'oa'oina o fa'amatalaga e uiga i mea'ai nai lo isi fa'amatalaga.

O le faʻamalosia o gaioiga o le dopamine e faʻalagolago i le dopamine faʻalagolago i palasitisi i luga poʻo totonu o neu striatal e maua ai faʻaoga mai le midbrain dopaminergic structures. O nei mea e masani lava o neu tui e faʻaalia ai le dopamine D1 poʻo le D2 receptor, e taʻua o le auala tuusaʻo (dMSNs) poʻo le auala le tuusaʻo medium spiny neurons (iMSNs), i le faasologa (Gerfen et al., 1990). O se faʻataʻitaʻiga mo le faʻafefea ona faʻaalia e nei faitau aofaʻi le pulea o amioga i le tuai o 1980s, ma o nisi taimi e taʻua o le "faʻataʻitaʻiga masani" o le basal ganglia circuitry (Albin et al., 1989). Faʻavae tele i luga o suʻesuʻega faʻapitoa, o nei tusitala na manatu o le faʻagaoioia o dMSNs e faʻafaigofieina ai le gaosiga o afi, ae o le faʻagaoioia o iMSNs e taofia ai le gaosiga o afi. O faʻataʻitaʻiga manino o lenei faʻataʻitaʻiga na lagolagoina, faʻaalia ai o le auala tuusaʻo e faʻaleleia ai le gaioiga, ae o le auala le tuusaʻo e taofia ai le gaioiga (Sano et al., 2003; Durieux et al., 2009; Kravitz et al., 2010).

Ae ui i lea, e pei lava ona mafai e le dopamine ona faʻamalosia le faʻamalosia ma le gaioiga, o dMSNs ma iMSNs o loʻo faʻaalia foi se faʻalavelave faʻafeagai i luga o le faʻamalosia, lea e ono fautua mai ai fesoʻotaʻiga physiological i le va o le gaioiga ma le faʻamalosia (Kravitz ma Kreitzer, 2012). O le dopamine D1 faʻafeiloaʻi o se Gs faʻapipiʻi faʻamalosi, ma o lea e mafai ai e le dopamine ona faʻaosofia le dMSNs e ala i lenei faʻafeiloaʻi (Planert et al., 2013), lea e mafai ona taua i le faʻamalosia o meatotino o le dopamine. O le mea moni, o le optogenetic stimulation o dMSNs ua lava lea e faʻamalosi ai le faʻamalosi malosi i isumu (Kravitz et al., 2012), ma le faʻaogaina o gaoioiga a le dMSN e mafai ona faʻaogaina le faʻamalosia o meatotino o cocaine ma amphetamine (Lobo et al., 2010; Ferguson et al., 2011) ma taui masani (Hikida et al., 2010) i se faiga e ogatusa ma aʻafiaga o le faʻaosofia saʻo o le dMSN. O le dopamine D2 faʻafeiloaʻi o se faʻalavelave Gi faʻapipiʻi faʻatasi, ma o le mea lea e taofia ai e le dopamine iMSNs e ala i lenei faʻaogaina (Planert et al., 2013). Optogenetic activation of D2 receptor faʻaalia iMSNs faʻateleina le faʻafefe (Kravitz et al., 2012), ma faʻaitiitia ai foʻi le fiafia (Lobo et al., 2010), ma le puleaina e le tagata lava ia o cocaine (Bock et al., 2013). E ogatasi ma lenei mea, o le chemogenetic inhibition o nei neurons e faʻaleleia ai le tauia o meatotino o le amphetamine ma cocaine (Ferguson et al., 2011; Bock et al., 2013). E fa'apena fo'i, ina ua tu'uina atu i ai se filifiliga i le va o mea'ai suamalie (masi sukalati) ma a latou mea'ai masani, o le D1 agonist SKF 38393 na fa'ateleina lo latou fiafia i mea'ai suamalie, ae fa'aititia e le D2 agonist quinpirole (Cooper ma Al-Naser, 2006). I lenei auala, o le faʻamalolo o le dopamine e mafai ona faʻamalosia le faʻamalosia e ala i le lua taʻavale basal ganglia tutoʻatasi. E mafai e le Dopamine ona faʻamalosia le faʻamalosia e ala i le faʻagaoioia o dMSNs ma gaioiga e ala i le ala tuusaʻo, faʻapea foʻi ma le faʻalavelaveina o iMSNs ma gaioiga e ala i le ala le tuusao (Kravitz ma Kreitzer, 2012).

E ui e masani ona faʻaitiitia le tuʻuina atu o le dopamine aʻo aʻoaʻoina e manu le faʻamalosia sootaga, o le sucrose binging e mafai ona faʻaalia pea le maualuga o le faʻamalolo o le dopamine, faʻaauau ona tuʻuina atu se faʻamaoniga faʻamalosi e mulimuli i amioga e faʻatonuina i nei meaʻai (Rada et al., 2005; Hoebel et al., 2009). E le iloa pe fa'asa'oloto le dopamine i le ga'o maualuga po'o isi mea'ai suamalie. O le toe tuʻuina atu o le dopamine i le taimi o le sucrose binging atonu e tutusa ma le mea e tupu i vailaʻau faʻamaʻi, lea e faʻaauau pea ona faʻaosofia le gaioiga o le dopaminergic e ala i gaioiga faʻafomaʻi, e tusa lava po o le a le lelei na aʻoaʻoina ai e le manu le fegalegaleaiga i le va o amioga ma le tuʻuina atu o fualaau faasaina (Di Chiara ma Imperato, 1988). O le mea lea, a'o 'ai e manu ia mea'ai, o le dopamine mediated reinforcement process e mafai ona tupu i tulaga faifaipea ma super-physiological. O le mea moni, o le gaʻo ua fesoʻotaʻi ma le faʻaleleia atili o gaioiga i vaega o le faiʻai e faʻatautaia le salience ma le taui i le tali atu i meaʻai faʻaalia (Rothemund et al., 2007; Stoeckel et al., 2008; Jastreboff et al., 2013), e ui lava o isi suʻesuʻega na lipotia mai faʻafeagai sailiiliga i lenei tulaga (Stice et al., 2010). E taua tele, aemaise lava pe a mafaufau i mea tutusa ma eseesega i le va o vaisu o fualaau faasaina ma vaisu sucrose, o vaega eseese o striatal neurons e faʻagaoioia pe a faʻaogaina e manu le cocaine ma meaʻai poʻo vai, e faʻaalia ai o "iunite galue" eseese i le basal ganglia e mafai ona faʻaogaina amioga faʻatonu i. fualaau fa'asaga i mea'ai fa'amalosi (Carelli et al., 2000). E ui lava i lenei faʻalapotopotoga faʻatinoga, e mafai ona faʻapea o suiga faʻapitoa faʻapitoa i le dopamine faʻasalalau faʻamalosia faiga e mafai ona saofagā i le faʻamalosia o le taumafaina i totonu o vaega o vaega faʻapitoa e faʻaogaina meaʻai ma vaisu. O suʻesuʻega o loʻo i luga na faʻamalamalamaina auala e mafai ona faʻaleleia ai le faʻamalosia o meatotino o vailaʻau o le faʻaleagaina, ma fautua mai e mafai ona suia nei auala i vaisu. Peita'i, e na'o le tasi lea vaega o vaisu, ose fa'ama'i lavelave e aofia ai le tele o ta'amilosaga fai'ai. I le faʻaopoopoga i le faʻamalosia o vailaʻau e ala i le basal ganglia circuits o loʻo faʻamatalaina i luga, o isi taʻaloga e faʻatalanoaina faʻaletonu i le taofiofia o le pulea, ma le tulaʻi mai o tulaga le lelei o lagona. E ui o loʻo i luga ua sili atu le faʻamalamalamaina o le matafaioi a le dopaminergic system i le faʻatalanoaina o le faʻamalosia, e taua le maitauina e le o faʻamalosia uma o vaisu. Mo se faʻataʻitaʻiga, o le toʻatele o tagata taʻitoʻatasi o loʻo aʻafia i fualaau faasaina e le avea ma vaisu, e ui lava i le mauaina o fualaau faasaina. O le mea lea, o isi suiga o le matagaluega e ono aʻafia i vaisu o vailaʻau, e pei o faʻaletonu o loʻo i lalo i le taofiofia o le pulea o amioga, ma le tulaʻi mai o lagona le lelei.

Fa'aletonu i le pulea fa'alavelave

O vaisu o fualaau faasaina e o faatasi ma le faaletonu i le medial prefrontal ma le orbitofrontal cortical function, ma mafua ai le le atoatoa i le puleaina o amioga (Koob ma Volkow, 2010; Volkow et al., 2013). I manu, o se suʻesuʻega talu ai nei na faʻaalia ai o le faʻaumiumi o le puleaina o le cocaine e faʻaitiitia ai le faʻaogaina o le telefoni feaveaʻi o neurons cortical pre-frontal, e mafai ona faasino atu i se masini mo le faʻaogaina o le cocaine e faʻaleagaina ai le pito i luma (Chen et al. 2013). Ina ia faʻataʻitaʻi saʻo le matafaioi a le PFC neurons i le sailia o cocaine faʻamalosi, o nei tusitala optogenetically faʻaosofia ma faʻalavelaveina nei neu, lea na faʻaitiitia pe faʻateleina ai le suʻeina o cocaine, i le faasologa (Chen et al., 2013). E ui lava i se faʻataʻitaʻiga faʻataʻitaʻiga eseʻese, na lipotia mai iʻuga eseese faʻatasi ai ma le toe faʻaleleia o le suʻeina o cocaine, lea o le faʻasaina o lenei fausaga na faʻaleagaina ai le toe faʻaleleia o le suʻega koko (Stefanik et al., 2013). O lenei eseesega o loʻo faʻaalia ai o faʻafitauli muamua i suʻesuʻega a le tagata atonu e le atagia mai i le faʻaitiitia o le faʻaitiitia o le gaioiga muamua, ae sili atu suiga faʻapitoa i taʻaloga faʻapitoa i luma i auala e faʻaleleia ai le toe faʻafoʻi. O le mea moni, o suʻesuʻega faʻaosofia o le optogenetic e faʻaalia ai o le PFC neurons o loʻo faʻaalia i le tele o le serotonergic dorsal raphe e faʻamalosia ai le aau malosi i se suʻega aau faʻamalosi, ae o le faʻagaoioia o neurons PFC uma e le faia (Warden et al., 2012). E ono mafai ona fa'afaigofieina fa'amamafa vaega o amioga fa'atatau i fualaau fa'asaina, ma fa'apea, e mafai ona fa'aalia e ala eseese o amio.

E mafai fo'i ona feso'ota'i fa'atasi ma le tino puta. O le alamanuia taumafa e lagolagoina e le le mafaia e tagata ona pulea a latou meaʻai e aunoa ma se faʻalavelave mai fafo. O loʻo i ai le faʻateleina o faʻamaoniga e fesoʻotaʻi le oona ma faʻaletonu i le gaioiga o le mafaufau, e aofia ai le le atoatoa i galuega faʻapitoa, manatuaga galue, ma le gauai (Gunstad et al., 2007; Bruehl et al., 2009; Mirowsky, 2011). O nei galuega e tautuaina e le cortical circuitry, lea e faʻaaogaina ai le "pito i lalo" pulea i luga o le faiʻai o loʻo talanoaina i luga. O suʻesuʻega faʻataʻitaʻiga o faiʻai ua faʻaalia ai le tele o faʻalavelave faʻaleagaina e fesoʻotaʻi ma le gaʻo, e pei o le faʻaitiitia o le mamafa o mea efuefu ma gaioiga faʻasolosolo i pito i luma o tagata laʻititi, atonu e mafua ai le faʻaleagaina o le mafai ona taofia le 'ai (Le et al., 2006; Pannacciulli et al., 2006; Volkow et al., 2009; Smucny et al., 2012; Van den Eynde et al., 2012).

O se tasi o tulaga e masani ona maua ai e tagata i latou lava e taumafai e faʻaogaina le faʻalavelave faʻalavelave o le taimi o meaʻai. O lo'o taumafai se tagata ua oti e fa'atumauina se tulaga e le'i iai le kalori, a'o tete'e atu i faiga fa'amalosi (o lo'o fa'amatala atu i luga) ma fa'alavelave fa'alagona (fa'amatala atu i lalo). O se fa'ata'ita'iga manu o lenei mea o le fa'aoso fa'apopoleina o le toe fa'afo'isia o mea'ai. I lenei faʻataʻitaʻiga, ua aʻoaʻoina manu e faʻapipiʻi mo meaʻai, pe a maeʻa ona tape ae mafai ona toe faʻaleleia ma faʻalavelave faʻalavelave, e aofia ai le faʻamaʻi faʻamaʻi faʻamaʻi faʻataʻitaʻiga yohimbine (ma le α2-adrenergic antagonist). Optogenetic inhibition o le medial PFC i le taimi o togafitiga o le yohimbine na faʻaleagaina ai lenei toe faʻaleleia, e tutusa ma lipoti faʻatasi ai ma faʻamatalaga faʻaosoina le toe faʻaleleia o cocaine, e fautua mai ai o faiga tutusa e mafai ona faʻavae uma iʻuga e lua (Calu et al., 2013; Stefanik et al., 2013). E toe fai mai, o lenei mea e faʻaalia ai o faʻalavelave faʻaleagaina e fesoʻotaʻi ma le gaʻo e foliga mai e le o ni suiga faigofie i le gaioiga atoa, ae o le gaioiga faʻapitoa o faʻamatalaga faʻapitoa muamua. O le mea moni, o se suʻesuʻega faʻamalosia a le Fos i meaʻai ma faʻalavelave toe faʻaleleia faʻataʻitaʻiga na faʻaalia ai o loʻo faʻagaoioia neu muaʻi faʻaalia suiga tulaga ese synaptic, e fesoʻotaʻi ma neurons e le faʻaaogaina (Cifani et al., 2012). O se nofoaga autu mo suʻesuʻega i le lumanaʻi o le a suʻesuʻeina le faʻasologa o faʻasologa o nei neu o le cortical muai luma, lea na faʻaalia e auina atu ai axons i nofoaga autu tau taui e pei o le VTA ma le accumbens core. O ia suʻesuʻega o le a mafai ai ona tatou faʻatalanoaina le tele o faʻalavelave faʻaleagaina e tutusa pe eseʻese i le va o le oona ma vaisu.

Tulaga le lelei o lagona

O lagona le lelei e pei o le popole ma le atuatuvale e mafai ona avea ma mea malolosi e mafua ai le faʻaaogaina o fualaau faasaina i vaisu. O vaisu e sili ona faigofie ona toe faʻafoʻi i taimi o le atuatuvale poʻo le faʻalavelave faʻalagona, ma o le faʻaaogaina o fualaau faasaina e mafai ona faʻaosofia ai tulaga faʻalavelave ma faʻalavelave faʻalagona (Koob, 2008). O faʻataʻitaʻiga tutusa e mafai ona tupu i le tele o le 'ai e fesoʻotaʻi ma le tino puta, ma mafua ai ona fesiligia e le au suʻesuʻe pe faʻapea foʻi le taʻaloga o loʻo faʻavaeina ai le faʻalavelave faʻafuaseʻi o fualaau faasaina ma meaʻai (Parylak et al., 2011; Sinha ma Jastreboff, 2013). Mo se faʻataʻitaʻiga, o taimi o le faʻalavelave e masani ona fesoʻotaʻi ma le taumafaina o meaʻai e sili ona manaia, e mafua ai le faaupuga "meaʻai faʻamafanafana" ma le "ai faʻalagona". E le gata i lea, o manu lapopoa o loʻo faʻaalia le maualuga o le popole ma le atuatuvale, ma fautua mai o nei meaʻai latou te saofagā i se taamilosaga lea e fesoasoani ai nei lagona le lelei i le faʻateleina o le 'ai (Yamada et al., 2011; Sharma ma Fulton, 2013).

Ole tele ole fai'ai e fa'atonutonu ai lagona le lelei, e aofia ai le dopamine system. O le suiga o le dopamine faʻailoga ua matua aʻafia i le gaʻo ona o tagata lapopoa ma rodents e maualalo le maualuga o le striatal dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) avanoa faʻatusatusa i tagata paʻu ma manu (Wang et al., 2001; Johnson ma Kenny, 2010). E le gata i lea, o polymorphisms i le D2 receptor gene (Drd2) ua fesoʻotaʻi atu i le oona ma le tele o ituaiga o vaisu fualaau (Blum et al., 1990; Noble et al., 1993; Stice et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2012). O le mea e malie ai, e ui lava o faʻaletonu i le avanoa D2R ua fesoʻotaʻi foi ma vaisu i cocaine, ava malosi, opiates, ma le nicotine, o nei vaisu e le o fesoʻotaʻi ma le mamafa o le mamafa. O lo'o ta'u mai ai o a'afiaga ole fa'aletonu ole talitali D2 e ​​le feso'ota'i ile maua o le mamafa taʻitasi, ae i suiga o le amio e o faatasi ma le tino puta ma vaisu o fualaau faasaina. O se tasi o manatu mo le faʻaitiitia o le galuega D2R e mafai ona saofagā i suiga o amioga e fesoʻotaʻi ma le gaʻo ma vaisu o vailaʻau, o le tele o mea e faʻaaogaina e manu e totogi ai tali dopaminergic faʻafefe ona o le faʻaitiitia o le maualuga o le tali (Wang et al., 2002; Stice et al., 2008). I se isi faaupuga, e manaʻomia e manu ni maualuga maualuga o le dopaminergic stimulation e maua ai le aʻafiaga tutusa e pei o se manu e faʻapipiʻi atoatoa le dopamine receptors. E mafai ona ausia lenei mea e ala i vailaʻau faʻafomaʻi, ona o vailaʻau uma o le faʻaleagaina e mafua ai le tuʻuina atu o le dopamine i le striatum (Di Chiara ma Imperato, 1988). I le isi itu, e mafai ona ausia e ala i le taumafaina o meaʻai suamalie, e pei o meaʻai e maualuga le suka ma le gaʻo.

Ole fa'aitiitia ole galuega ole D2R e mafai ona valoia e fa'atuputeleina ai le gaioiga ile iMSNs, aua ole D2R ole fa'auiga fa'atasi Gi. O le mea lea, e ono mafai e tagata lapopoa ona 'aina meaʻai e faʻamalosia ai le faʻamalolo o le dopamine e faʻalavelave ai nei iMSNs malosi ma sosola ese mai tulaga faʻalagona le lelei. E ogatasi ma lenei manatu, o manu e faʻaalia ChR2 i iMSNs faʻaalia le le fiafia i le faʻaosofia o nei sela (Kravitz et al., 2012). Pe a suʻesuʻeina i le tulaga o le taui cocaine, o le faʻaosofia o le optogenetic e faʻaleagaina foi (Lobo et al., 2010; Bock et al., 2013), ae o le chemogenetic inhibition o nei neurons e faʻaleleia ai amioga faʻatonuina cocaine (Ferguson et al., 2011; Bock et al., 2013). E tusa ai ma nei suʻesuʻega, o le faʻateleina o mea tauia o le amphetamine na maua ina ua faʻaumatia nei neu (Durieux et al., 2009). Faʻatasi, o nei suʻesuʻega o loʻo fautua mai ai o le faʻaititia o le D2 faʻamatalaga e mafai ona maua ai se tulaga faʻalagona le lelei, ma o manu o le a sailia le super-physiological dopamine faʻamalolo e sola ese mai lenei setete.

I le faaopoopo atu i le dopamine receptors, o suiga i le dopamine e gaosia ai neu i le VTA e mafai ona saofagā i le tulaʻi mai o lagona le lelei. E ala i a latou faʻaoga i le VTA, o mea e maua mai i le laterodorsal tegmentum ma le habenula pito i tua e faʻaalia ai tulaga lelei ma le le lelei i isumu, taʻitasi (Lammel et al., 2012; Stamatakis ma Stuber, 2012). O le taofiofia filifilia o le VTA DA neurons na mafua ai le atuatuvale-pei o phenotypes, e pei ona iloiloina e ala i le siʻusiʻu-faʻamalolo ma faʻamalosi-aau suʻega, faʻaopoopo i le anhedonia, faʻatusatusa e ala i le sucrose preference assay (Tye et al., 2013). Ina ia faʻaalia le puleaina o nei neu ma lo latou lava i le faʻatalanoaina o nei amioga, na faʻaalia ai e le au tusitala o le faʻaogaina o ata faʻapitoa o le VTA DA neurons e laveaʻiina ai faʻalavelave faʻalavelave-pei o le atuatuvale (Tye et al., 2013). Ina ia suʻesuʻeina le agavaʻa ma le faʻamalosia i faʻalavelave faʻalavelave faʻaagafesootai, na lipotia mai o le optogenetic induction o le phasic, ae le o le tonic, o le fanaina i VTA DA neurons o isumu o loʻo feagai ma se faʻataʻitaʻiga faʻaagafesootai-faʻaleagaina faʻaagafesootai faʻateleina le aloese ma faʻaitiitia le fiafia o le sucrose, lua faitauga tutoatasi o le atuatuvale (Chaudhury et al., 2013). Dopamine neurons i le VTA ua leva ona iloa e faʻapipiʻi taui faʻamutaina ma faʻailoga tau-faʻailoga (Bayer ma Glimcher, 2005; Pan et al., 2005; Roesch et al., 2007; Schultz, 2007). O suʻesuʻega electrophysiological ua fesoʻotaʻi ai foʻi le VTA DA neurons i le atuatuvale ma tulaga le lelei (Anstrom et al., 2009; Wang ma Tsien, 2011; Cohen et al., 2012) faʻailoaina le lavelave o faʻailoga dopaminergic.

Ma le mea mulimuli, i totonu o tagata, o le amygdala ua fesoʻotaʻi ma faʻalavelave popole-faʻalavelave (Etkin et al., 2009) ma le tu'inanau (Childress et al., 1999; Wrase et al., 2008), faʻaopoopo i le tele o isi gaioiga faʻalagona. O le tele o suʻesuʻega optogenetic ua faʻavasegaina le amygdala circuits e fesoʻotaʻi ma le tele o amioga mai i latou e fesoʻotaʻi ma le popole (Tye et al., 2011; Felix-Ortiz et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2013) poʻo le fefe (Ciocchi et al., 2010; Haubensak et al., 2010; Johansen et al., 2010) faʻapea foʻi ma mea e fesoʻotaʻi ma le sailia o taui (Stuber et al., 2010; Britt et al., 2012). E ui o suʻesuʻega electrophysiological o loʻo faʻaalia ai o le amygdala neurons e faʻapipiʻiina uma le lelei ma le le lelei o le faʻaosofia valence (Paton et al., 2006; Sapelu ma Janak, 2009), e le'i i ai lava ni su'esu'ega fa'apitoa e fa'ailoa mai ai le malosi o le fa'aogaina o neura o le vaega e le o fa'afefeteina le faitau aofa'i o neu e faia. E ui e leʻo malamalama atoatoa le faʻamaopoopoina o faʻalagona lagona le lelei e fesoʻotaʻi ma le gaʻo, o le suʻesuʻeina o suiga o le synaptic ma le telefoni feaveaʻi i nei taʻaloga atonu o se nofoaga lelei e vaʻai ai.

iʻuga

I tausaga talu ai nei, ua faʻaaogaina le faʻataʻitaʻiga o vaisu i le neural circuits e faʻasalalau amioga e fesoʻotaʻi ma le gaʻo. O lenei va'aiga ua fa'aosoina ai ni fa'amatalaga taua, a'o fa'ailoa pea o le lapo'a e iai ni eseesega taua mai vaisu. O le mea muamua lava, o mea'ai e mana'omia mo le ola, lea e avea ai le fa'avasegaina o vaega fetuutuunai ma maladaptive o le fafagaina o se lu'i pe a mafaufau i ni togafitiga e ono mafai ona fai, ona e le mafai e tagata lapo'a ona faia ni ta'iala e aloese ai mai mea'ai, ona e mafai e se tagata ua fai fualaau fa'asaina i fualaau fa'aleagaina. Tuuina atu le gafatia o le fafagaina o amioga e manaʻomia uma mo le ola ma le afaina tele, o le malamalama i le neural circuits e fesoʻotaʻi ma vaisu o meaʻai e manaʻomia ai meafaigaluega e sili ona saʻo, e pei o faʻataʻitaʻiga faʻatautaia e ala optogenetic ma chemogenetic.

Feteenaʻiga o tului

Fai mai tusitala o le suʻesuʻega sa faia i le leai o soʻo se fefaʻatauaʻiga faʻapisinisi pe tau tupe e mafai ona avea o se feteenaʻiga e ono aʻafia ai.

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