He Hōʻike Hōʻike Hou a me ka Hoʻoikaika o ka Puʻukiakalakikala a me nā pilina pilikino: Nā hopena no nā mea noiʻiʻohana (2015)

Ke Commission 1970

Me ka pilikia nui o ka manawa (ʻo ia hoʻi, ua hāʻawi nā mea noiʻi i hoʻounaʻia i nā mahina 9 e hoʻolako i ka hōʻike piha), ua hoʻokūkinoʻia e ka nele o kahi kumu hana a me ke kumu (Wilson, 1971), ua hoʻoholo ke komisina i ka "ʻaʻoheʻike pono i kēia manawa e pili ana i ka laweʻana i nā mea pili i nā mea pili i ka moekolohe i ka hopena o ka moe kolohe a me ka hana kolohe i waena o nā'ōpio a me nā mea makua" (Commission Commission on Obscity and Pornography, 1972, p. 169). ʻO kēia ka nānā ʻana i ka lawehala kuhihewa paha ka mea i loaʻa i ka nānā "liberal normative" i ʻike nui ʻia o nā hopena pāpāho (Linz & Malamuth, 1993), kū'ē i ka hoʻonāukiukiʻana keʻole eʻikeʻia kahi hōʻike hōʻike pololei i hōʻinoʻia e ka poʻe paʻi kiʻi. ʻO nā hopena'ē aʻe, e like me nā hopena o ka hemoʻana a me nā maʻi i hoʻounaʻia ma ke kino, ua manaʻo muaʻia no ka hoʻokomoʻana, akā ua hoʻonohonoho ke komisina i nā kumuhana a lākou i manaʻo ai e hiki ke'āʻiliʻili i nā hōʻike (Johnson, 1971). ʻO ka palekana o ka pilina aloha he mea nui ia, no ka mea,ʻaʻole i hoʻomaopopo pono i ke kūkā. ʻOiai ua hanaʻia ke komisina i hoʻokahi ka nānāʻana i nā hopena pōkole o ka ponokala kiʻi ma waena o nā kāne male (Mann, 1970), ua loaʻa kēia mau manaʻo i ka liʻiliʻi loa o ka nānā ma mua o ka nānāʻana i ka hoʻopiʻi, ka hewa, ka hanaʻino, a me ka huhū. Nā hopena e pili ana i ka likeʻana o ka wahine (e lilo ana i meaʻoi aʻe ma mua aku, e like me Dworkin, 1985) i mālama ikiʻia paha, ma muli paha o ka nele o nā lālā o nā kōmike wahine.2

Ke aʻo i nā kiʻiʻoniʻoni ma hope o 1970

ʻOiai nā mea kālai'āina i koho e koho i ke komisina i hōʻole i kāna mau hopena (Nixon, 1970; ʻO Tatalovich & Daynes, 2011), nui ka poʻe i ka ʻona kaiāulu i ʻae iā lākou. Ua hōʻike kekahi mau ʻepekema i nā loiloi ikaika o nā hana a me nā ʻike a ke komisina (e laʻa me Cline, e like me ka mea i hōʻike ʻia i loko o ka hōʻike liʻiliʻi a ko US Komisina no obscenity a me nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni. 1972) akā naʻe,ʻaʻole i liʻiliʻi iki kēia mau ho'āʻo, ma kaʻoihana aʻo a me ka lehulehu (Simons, 1972). Ua ʻae ka nui o nā ʻepekema pilikanaka i ka hoʻoponopono maikaʻi ʻia ʻana o ka nīnau no ka hōʻino ʻia o nā ponokala kiʻi (Malamuth & Donnerstein, 1982), a ua hoʻomaka ka poʻe ʻepekema i kahi nalu o ka noiʻi ʻana i nā kiʻi pono ʻole i nānā ʻole e nānā i nā hopena maikaʻi ʻole o ka ʻai ʻana (e laʻa me Brown, Amoroso, Ware, Pruesse, & Pilkey, 1973).

He mea noiʻi huhū ia, e pili ana i ka loulou ma waena o ka huhū a me ka huhū i kākau ʻia i loko o ka hōʻike loea a ke komisina (Mosher & Katz, 1971), nāna e hoʻoneʻe i ka noiʻi i nā hopena maikaʻiʻole. Eia kekahi laʻana,ʻo nā mea i hoʻokomo i nā pilakala kiʻi ponoi, uaʻoi aku ka nui o nā hoʻokele hili e kū'ē i nā poʻe i hoʻonāukiuki iā lākou ma mua o ka poʻe i hōʻikeʻoleʻia (Zillmann, 1971), a ua unuhi ka poʻe noiʻi i kēia mau mea hoʻokūwaha nui i ka hoʻonuiʻia o ka huhū. ʻO kēia mau mea noiʻi i hoʻohuiʻia i nā kūkākūkā wāhine o ka ponokalakala (Malamuth, 1978), e hoʻomau nei e hiki ke pili aku i nā kiʻi ponoʻole i ka paʻiʻana, ka huhū, a me ke kūlike kāneʻole (Brownmiller, 1975; ʻO Russell, 1988). ʻO kēia mau haʻawina e pili ana i ka huhū e hāʻawi ana i ka hōʻike o ka pōʻino pilikanaka o ka ponokala i hōʻike ʻole ʻia e ke komisina 1970, ʻoiai ke kiʻi ʻia nā kiʻi ʻino i nā kiʻi kolohe (Donnerstein & Linz, 1986). Uaʻaeʻia nā manaʻo hoʻokolohua i nā mea noiʻi e kahakiʻi i nā pilina pili i waena o nā kiʻi ponoʻole a me ka huhū, me ka hoʻokau ponoʻole i nā kiʻi ponoʻole i nā wāhine.

ʻO nā manaʻo pilikino i nā 1980s

E like me ka loulou hoʻokolohua ma waena o nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni a me ka hoʻouka kaua i hoʻoikaika ʻia i nā 1980 mua (Donnerstein & Berkowitz, 1981; Linz, Donnerstein, & Penrod, 1984; ʻO Zillmann lāua ʻo Bryant, 1982), ʻekolu mau komite aupuni i hoʻākoakoa ʻia (ʻo ke Kōmike ʻo Williams ma ke Aupuni Hui Pū ʻIa i ka makahiki 1979, a ʻo ke Komite Fraser ma Kanada a me ke Komisina Loio Kuhina no nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni ma ʻAmelika Hui Pū ʻIa, ʻo ia hoʻi ma ka makahiki 1986) nāna i mālama i kēia noiʻi (Einsiedel, 1988). Hāpai nā kōmike i ka hoʻohaunahewaʻana mai nā haumāna e pili ana i nā kuʻuna kūloko (Brannigan, 1991; ʻO Fisher & Barak, 1991; Segal, 1990), a ʻo kekahi mau mea noiʻi huhū iā lākou iho i ʻōlelo, haʻalulu i ka manaʻo o kā lākou ʻikepili ponoʻī e hāʻawi ana i ka laikini i ka censorship aupuni (Linz, Penrod, & Donnerstein, 1987; ʻO Wilcox, 1987). A ʻo kahi hopena, he nui ka poʻe i nalo ka hilinaʻi ʻole i nā puke e pili ana i nā kiʻi ponokala kiʻi a me ka huhū, me kekahi e ʻōlelo nei i nā loiloi a kēia mau mea noiʻi e hōʻike i ka nele o nā hōʻike kūpono no ka hōʻeha pilikanaka (G. Rubin, 1993).

I loko o kēia mau wīhoihoi e hoʻomau nei, ua waihoʻia ka nīnau nui: Hiki i kaʻenehanaʻikepili ke palekana, hōʻike i nā hōʻike e pili ana i ka pono kiʻi kiʻi kiʻi i ka hana hoʻomāinoino a me ka hoʻouka kaua? ʻO kaʻaha kūkā, a laila a ma kēia manawa,ʻaʻole hiki iā ia (Boyle, 2000; ʻO Jensen, 1994). ʻOiai inā he loulou kēlā, ua paʻa nā loina kūpono i ka ʻike ʻana i nā hōʻike hoʻokolohua ikaika i paʻakikī, ʻoiai ʻaʻole e ʻike nā kānaka noiʻi i nā hana maoli o ka pue wale a i ʻole ka hana ʻino, ma ka keʻena hoʻokolohua a ma ke kula paha (Zillmann & Bryant, 1986). Ma muli o ke kūpono kūpono ʻole nā ​​hōʻike i loaʻa, ua komo ka hoʻopaʻapaʻa me ka ʻae iki ʻana i nā hopena o nā kiʻi pono ʻole, a ua hoʻomau ka nui i ka nānā ʻana i nā kiʻi pono ʻole me ka maikaʻi ʻole (Fisher & Barak, 1991). ʻImiʻia ka noiʻiʻana i ka pilina ma waena o nā kiʻi ponokala a me ka hakakā, me kekahi mau kumu'ē aʻe (ʻoiai, Malamuth et al., 2000).

ʻO nā wāhine kāne male

I ka hikiʻana o nā kiʻi pākīpihi i mua, ua wikiwiki nā leo wahine e hōhewa i kāna hōʻike kolohe loa i nā wāhine (ʻo ia hoʻi, ka manaʻoʻo pornokalakilo he wahaheʻe e hōʻike ana i nā wāhine e hauʻoli ana i ka hana hoʻomāinoino a me ka haipiki i hanaʻia ma luna o lākou; 1975; Millett, 1970). ʻO kēia leo (e like me Dworkin, 1985; ʻO MacKinnon, 1985), hoʻonohonoho ʻia i ka hopena o ka makahiki 1970 ma ke ʻano ʻo Women Against Pornography, hoʻolaʻa ʻia no ka hōʻemi ʻana i ka mana o nā ponokala kiʻi i ke kaiāulu (Kirkpatrick & Zurcher, 1983). Ua ʻōlelo lākou ʻo nā ponokala kiʻi kahi hōʻailona a me ke kumu o ka noho aliʻi kāne ʻana o nā wahine ma o ka pue wale a me ka hana hoʻomāinoino a ua kōkua ia e hoʻomau i ka like ʻole o ke kāne a me ka hana hewa i nā pono kīvila o nā wahine. Ua hauʻoli kēia kūlana i ka ʻoluʻolu lehulehu i nā makahiki he XNUMX e hiki mai ana, me ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka mana i nā politika ʻelua (Fraser Commission, 1985), a me nāʻoihana hoʻonaʻauao (Russell, 1988).

Akā naʻe,ʻaʻole i kūpono nā wāhine a pau i nā kūlana a me nā hana a nā mea hoʻonāukiuki honua. ʻO kēia mau wāhine hānai pinepine i ke kūʻana i kahi mea pani wiwoʻole, me kaʻaeʻana he ponoʻole nā ​​kiʻi pilau, akā,ʻaʻole iʻoi aku ka pilikia no ka noiʻana i ka hana a ke aupuni (G. Rubin, 1993; ʻO Strossen, 1993). He poʻe ʻoluʻolu ʻole hoʻi e hui pū me nā pūʻali koa a me nā conservatives Christian, ka mea i kūʻē nui i nā loina a me nā waiwai o nā wahine ma nā pilikia ʻē aʻe (Ellis, O'Dair, & Tallmer, 1990; G. Rubin, 1993; ʻO Strossen, 1993). ʻO ke aʻo, hoʻopaʻapaʻa lākou, he hopena ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi ma mua o ka censorship, a ʻo ka mākeke o nā manaʻo e hōʻemi i ka hopena o nā ponokala kiʻi, a laila e hōʻemi ana i kāna hopena maikaʻi (Carse, 1995).

Aia nō kekahi poʻe akamai,ʻike lākou i ka pono e pale ikaika aku i nā kiʻi ponoʻole:

Inā pololei ka manaʻoo ka wahine, a laila e lanakila i kahi mākaʻikaʻi o nā manaʻo i ka nānāʻana i nā "hakakā maoli" i hoʻokumuʻia e nā kiʻi pilawila he meaʻole a paneʻole. Inā pono ka ponokala kiʻi e pakele i ka hopena o ka wahine, pono e loaʻa ka hōʻoiaʻiʻo ma mua o ka hoʻomanawanui hoʻomana. (Sherman, 1995, p. 667).

Ma hope o nā 1990s i hala, ua mākaukau nā wāhine e hoʻomākaukau i kēia hōʻoia, e'ōlelo ana ua hāʻawiʻia nā kiʻi pīkoi e hoʻoikaika i ka wahine pili ola maikaʻi a me kaʻole (Lubey, 2006). ʻO nā kiʻi pilikino, iā lākou,ʻo ia ka pāpāho e mahalo ai i kona pono pono'ī (Chancer, 2000).

ʻOiai he mea paʻakikī ke kohoʻana i ka lanakila lanakila ma kēia mau hoʻopiʻiʻana, ua hala nā hana a nā wāhine wahine hōʻeuʻeu i nā makahiki i hala iho nei, ma muli o ka makeʻana o Andrea Dworkin (Boulton, 2008). ʻOiaiʻo ka hiʻohiʻona wahine wiwoʻole i nā kiʻi pīkino i mamao aku i ka nalowaleʻana mai ka'ōlelo aʻo kula (Bianchi, 2008), aia kekahi mau hōʻike e hoʻoikaika i nā hiʻohiʻona wahine e pili ana i ka pilalika i kahi ala maikaʻi (Carroll et al., 2008).

Nā pono iʻikeʻia iāʻoe iho

ʻOiaiʻo ka hapanui o nā noiʻi e nānā ana i nā hopena maikaʻiʻole, ua hōʻiliʻili kekahi mau haʻawina i ka hopena o ka pono o nā ponokala kiʻi. ʻO ka hana nui loa i mālamaʻia e McKee, Albury, a me Lumby (2008), ka mea i nīnau aku i nā mea kākau inoa ʻAukekulelia nā mea kākau inoa i ka mea a lākou i ʻike ai i ka hopena o nā ponokala kiʻi i ko lākou ola iho. Ua hōʻike ka hapanui i nā hopena maikaʻi o nā ponokala kiʻi, e like me ka hōʻemi ʻia ʻana o nā mea kūʻai aku e pili ana i ka moekolohe, e hana ākea ana iā lākou e pili ana i ka moekolohe, e hoʻonui ana i ka hoʻomanawanui ʻana i nā moekolohe a nā poʻe ʻē aʻe, e hāʻawi ana i ka leʻaleʻa, e hāʻawi ana i ka ʻike i ka naʻau, e hoʻomau i ka hoihoi o ka wahine i nā pili wā lōʻihi, e hoʻolilo iā lākou ʻoi aku ka nānā i nā makemake moekolohe o ka hoa, kōkua i nā mea kūʻai aku e ʻike i kahi ʻano a me / a i ʻole ke kaiāulu, a kōkua iā lākou e kamaʻilio me kā lākou mau hoa e pili ana i ka moekolohe. ʻO kēia mau pōmaikaʻi i ʻike ʻia i hoʻopaʻa ʻia i loko o kahi laʻana nui Dutch o nā ʻōpio makua (Hald & Malamuth, 2008), nāna i hōʻike ua ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o nā kiʻi ponokala ma mua o nā hopena maikaʻi ʻole i kā lākou ola wahine, ko lākou ʻano i ka moekolohe, ko lākou ʻano i ka wahine ʻē aʻe, a i ko lākou ola maʻamau, ʻoi aku ka nui o nā hopena no nā kāne ma mua o ka wahine. Eia kekahi, i kahi ana o nā wahine a nā hoa i hoʻohana ai i nā ponokala, manaʻo ka hapanui ua hoʻonui ka ʻai a kā lākou hoa i kā lākou ola wahine (Bridges et al., 2003). Ma kēia hoʻokolohua, ua hōʻike kekahi o nā mea pane i ka hoʻohanaʻana i nā kiʻi ponoʻole ma keʻano he mau wāhine, a lākou iʻike ai he mea maikaʻi.

ʻOiaiʻaʻole pono e hoʻokuʻuʻia nā manaʻo kūpono o ka poʻe kūʻai,ʻaʻohe palena o kēia mau manaʻo. ʻO nā mea i loko o kēia mau haʻawina,ʻaʻole ia he hōʻailona o ka heluna o nā kiʻi pumehana. ʻO nā mea pane i kākauʻia i kahi mekalakala pilakalakala, e like me keʻano, pono ke nānā aku i nā hopena e'āpono ai i ka hoʻokomoʻana i nā kiʻi ponokala (Lohi, 2013). Hoʻohui ʻia, hōʻike paha nā laʻana o nā ʻōpio i nā mea kūʻai aku, e like me nā mākua i nā pilina paʻa, ka mea ʻokoʻa ka manaʻo e pili ana i nā ponokala kiʻi (Bergner & Bridges, 2002). ʻO ia mau pōmaikaʻi e wehewehe i kahi ʻano idealised o ka ʻai ʻana, me nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni i hoʻohana mua ʻia no nā kumu aʻo a pilina paha, ʻaʻole paha ia ke ʻano maʻamau (Cooper, Morahan-Martin, Mathy, & Maheu, 2002).

Eia hou, moe paha nā hopena ʻino o nā ponokala ma waho o ka ʻike o ka poʻe kūʻai (Hald & Malamuth, 2008). E kia i ka manaʻo ponoʻī e hāʻawi i kahi kiʻi skewed o nā hopena ponokala kiʻi, kahi e hoʻokūkū i nā pono i ka wā e uhi ana i nā ʻino hiki ke loaʻa. Hōʻike ʻia kēia ʻano i nā ponokala kiʻi i hoʻokumu pono ʻia, ka hopena o ke kanaka ʻekolu - ʻoi aku ka ʻoluʻolu o kēlā me kēia me nā kiʻi ʻino i nā mea kūʻai ʻē aʻe ma mua o ka pili ʻana iā lākou iho (Lo, Wei, & Wu, 2010).

Arousal a hoʻonaʻauao

Hōʻoiaʻiʻo nā hōʻike empirical i ka hoʻohana ʻana o nā ponokala kiʻi ma ke ʻano he kōkua moekolohe a me kahi mea aʻo wahine. E like me ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana o nā noiʻi mua loa o nā kiʻi pono ʻole, hiki ke ala aʻe a leʻaleʻa ke nānā ʻana i nā mea moekolohe i ka moekolohe. (US Commission on obscenity and Pornography, 1972). Hoʻohana ʻia nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni i waena o nā wahine me nā ʻike maikaʻi me ka moekolohe (Rogala & Tydén, 2003), hiki ke hoʻonui i ke kamaʻilio ma waena o nā hoa e pili ana i nā moemoeā a me nā makemake (Daneback, Traeen, & Maansson, 2009), a hiki ke hoʻonui i nā moe kolohe o ka wahine (Weinberg, Williams, Kleiner, & Irizarry, 2010). Hiki i nā kiʻiʻoniʻoni ke lilo i mea e hoʻokuʻu ai i ka hoʻokuʻuʻana i ka wā e hele ai nā hoa aʻaʻole paha i loaʻa (Hardy, 2004; E Parvez, 2006). Ma nāʻano o ka hoʻonaʻauaoʻana, pono ka'eneʻoniʻoni e hāʻawi i kaʻike e pili ana i nā kūlana wahine a me nā hana (no nā kāne ma mua o nā wāhine; 1991), ʻoiai ʻaʻole maopopo inā he kūpono maoli ke aʻo ʻana i hāʻawi ʻia e nā ponokala kiʻi, ʻoiai e ʻike ʻia nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni e aʻo i nā ʻano ʻē aʻe, e ka paipai ʻana i nā hana moekolohe weliweli (ʻo ia hoʻi, ʻo ka hapa nui o nā moekolohe i hōʻike ʻia i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni ʻaʻole palekana. Stein, Silvera, Hagerty, & Marmor, 2012), nā mea hana i ka wahine (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006), a me nā kaʻao lape (Allen, Emmers, Gebhardt, & Giery,) 1995).3

ʻO ke aʻo ʻana i ka ʻike moekolohe o kēlā me kēia kanaka e hana nei a ʻai ʻole i ka ponokala kiʻi e kōkua maikaʻi ia e loiloi i ka nui a me ka waiwai o nā hopena aʻo o nā ponokala.

Hoʻonohoʻia i nā hopena pilikia

Ua lōʻihi ka manaʻo o nā mea noi e hiki i ka pilapala ke loaʻa kahi kuleana, e kōkua ai i ka hoʻokuʻuʻana i ka hoʻonākualipili e hoʻonāukiuki i ka huhū a me ka hoʻouka kaua (Wilson, 1971). ʻOiai ʻike ka poʻe noiʻi ʻaʻole kūpilikiʻi ke kuhiakau cathartic a ʻaʻole i kākoʻo nui ʻia (Allen, DʻAlessio, & Brezgel, 1995; ʻO Ferguson & Hartley, 2009), nāʻikepili kūlana'āina mai ka 1998 a hiki i ka 2003, i ka manawa i hoʻonuiʻia ai ka pono o nā pornokala pūnaewele, e hōʻike ana he nui ka emiʻana o nā huina male i nā kāne o 15-19-he mau makahiki i hikiʻole i ka loaʻaʻana o nā ponokala me ka Internet (Kendall, 2006). Ua hōʻikeʻia kēia mau hopena e hiki ke lilo i nā kiʻi ponoi i mea pani no ka hōʻinoʻana no nā kāne'ōpio. Pēlā nō, i ka nānāʻiaʻana o nā uku hānai keiki i nā wahi i hoʻokolokoloʻia ai nā kiʻi pila kiʻi keiki no kekahi manawa, ua kākauʻia ka emiʻana o ka molestation i ka manawa e loaʻa ai nā ponokala kiʻi (Diamond, 2009). Hāʻawi kēia mau noiʻi i nā hōʻike mua o nā kūlana i loaʻa i ka ponokala kiʻi ka hopena cathartic, ma ka liʻiliʻi o ka hōʻuluʻulu. ʻAʻole hiki ke unuhi maikaʻi kēia mau ʻike i kēlā me kēia pae, akā naʻe, ʻo ka poʻe i ahewa ʻia no ka loaʻa ʻana o nā kiʻi ponokala kiʻi keiki e hoʻomāinoino paha i nā keiki, ma ka liʻiliʻi e like me kahi noiʻi (Bourke & Hernandez, 2009).

Nā pilina pili i ka pilina

ʻO kēia mau pōmaikaʻi he mau mea nui ka pili no ka pilina o ka wahine ma ka pili aloha. Ua nānā nā haʻawina i ka pili ponoʻana o nā kiʻi pono kiʻi i ka hoʻonuiʻana i ka nohokino me ka hoʻomāhuahuaʻana i ka moekolohe (Johnston, 2013; ʻO ultulhofer, Buško, & Schmidt, 2012). ʻOiai ke nānā nei kēia mau haʻawina i nā mea'ē aʻe ma mua o ka hoʻopiliʻana o nā keiki, akā,ʻo kā lākou mau hopena e hōʻike ana he pono loa kēia.

Kū'ē kūlike

Ke hoʻokolokolo nei i ka nani o nā hoa aloha, ʻōlelo pinepine mākou i kahi maʻamau maʻamau, kahi mea i hoʻomaopopo ʻia e nā poʻe ʻē aʻe a mākou e hālāwai nei (Kenrick & Gutierres, 1980), a me ka pāpāho e nānā nei mākou. Ke nānā nā kāne i nā kiʻi o nā wahine uʻi, a laila hoʻokolokolo i ka uʻi o kā lākou mau hoa ponoʻī, ʻike lākou i nā hopena ʻokoʻa - ʻike lākou i kā lākou mau kāne me ka liʻiliʻi o ka nani e pili ana i nā kāne i hōʻike ʻole ʻia i kēlā mau kiʻi (Kenrick, Gutierres, & Goldberg, 1989). Hiki iā ia ke pili i kekahi mau mea'ē aʻe o ka piliʻana: "ʻO ka hoʻomahaʻoleʻana,ʻo nā pilina maʻamau i nā ponokala kiʻi e hoʻohālike ana i nā kapu, ka hoʻokūpaʻa, a me nā kuleana e pili ana i kaʻohana a me nā pilina a me ka hoʻohālikeʻana i kēia mau mea" (Mundorf a me al., 2007, p. 85).

Zillmann a me Bryant (1988b) ua hoʻāʻo i kēia mau hopena ʻokoʻa ma ka hōʻike ʻana i kēlā me kēia kanaka i 6 mau hola o nā mea pono ʻole o nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni ʻole ma luna o 6 mau pule, e ana ana i ka māʻona me kā lākou mau hoa (ʻo ka hapanui o ka launa pū ʻana), e pili ana i ka leʻaleʻa wale nō akā ʻo ke aloha pū kekahi, ka moekolohe a me ka hana moekolohe. Hoʻohālikelike ʻia i nā kaohi, ua hōʻike ka poʻe i hōʻike ʻia i ka ʻoluʻolu nui ma luna o kēlā me kēia ana. Kākoʻo ʻia kēia mau mea i ʻike ʻia e ka ʻikepili hoʻopili e hoʻopili nei i nā ponokala kiʻi e hōʻemi ai i ka ʻoluʻolu me ka pili kino i ka pilina (Bridges & Morokoff, 2011; Poulsen, Busby, & Galovan, 2013). ʻO ke ola maoli, me he mea lā,ʻaʻole i hoʻohālikelikeʻia me nā ponoʻole.

Nā mea pili pili

Ma mua o ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka ʻike ʻana o nā mea kūʻai aku i nā ʻano a me ka lawena o kā lākou mau hoa ponoʻī, hiki i nā ponokala kiʻi ke hāʻawi i ka manaʻo o nā poʻe ʻē aʻe ma waho o ka pilina e hāʻawi maikaʻi i ka ʻano wahine a me ka hōʻoluʻolu (Zillmann & Bryant, 1984). Ke lilo nei kēia mau mea ʻē aʻe i mea ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi, kūpaʻa i ka pilina o kēia wā e hee ana, e like me ka mea i hōʻike ʻia e Rusbult's (1980) Keʻano hoʻoili waiwai. Ua kākoʻoʻia kēia manaʻo ma nā papa heluʻelua. ʻO ka mua,ʻo Lambert,ʻo Negash,ʻo Stillman,ʻo'Ammeteto, aʻo Fincham (2012) hōʻikeʻia ka hoʻonuiʻiaʻana o ka hoʻonaninani ponokala (ʻike pūnaewele porno i nā lā 30 mua) i ka hoʻokōʻana i kahi pilikino e pili nei i kēia manawa, e pili ana i ka pilikino me ka hoʻonuiʻana i ka hoʻokuʻiʻana me kekahi kanaka'ē aʻe ma ke kelepili. ua kuʻikahi i kahi hui maikaʻi ma waena o nā kiʻi ponoʻole a me ka hōʻole.4

Gwinn et al. (2013) uaʻike pūʻia hoʻi nā kānaka i kiʻiʻia me nā kiʻi ponokala kiʻi hōʻike i nāʻanoʻoluʻolu o nāʻanoʻokoʻa e pili ana i nā mana a me nā kiʻi ponokala (i nā lā ma mua o 30) e hōʻike ana i nā hana hou (like, flirting, kissing, cheating) 12 weeks after, with the perceived alternative quality ke kuʻiʻana i kēia hui. Hiki i nā kiʻi pornography ke hoʻokomoʻia i loko o ka hana extradyadic ma o nāʻike o nā mea pili.

ʻO ka hoʻonuiʻiaʻana o ka hōʻole

Ua hōʻike koke nā akeakamai i ka hiki no nā ponokala kiʻi e hoʻololi i nā "sex scripts" -ʻo kā mākou mau mea e manaʻo ai pehea e hoʻomaka ai ka hana moekolohe (a me nā pilina aloha) (Berger, Simon, & Gagnon, 1973) -E hoʻomaopopo i nā pilina pili (e like me ka manawa o ka manawa o ke kāne waha) a me nā hiʻohiʻona (e like me kaʻoiaʻiʻo). Ua hōʻike muaʻia kēia mana i kahi manaʻo maikaʻi, me nā kiʻi'onikala eʻike ana i ka hoʻonuiʻana i nā palapala hoʻokipa maikaʻi loa (Berger et al., 1973). He hiki nō naʻe ia, no ka mea, hōʻike pinepine ʻia nā kiʻi pono ʻole i nā kiʻi pono ʻole - a pinepine ʻole me ka hoʻopono ʻole ʻole - nā hālāwai moekolohe, hiki i ka hōʻike ʻana ke hoʻoulu i kahi moekolohe moekolohe, e hoʻonui ana i ka ʻae i nā hana extradyadic (Braithwaite, Coulson, Keddington, & Fincham, 2014).

Kākoʻo ikaika ka ʻikepili i loaʻa i ka ʻōlelo i hōʻike ʻia i kēlā me kēia mea i hōʻike i ka nui o nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni ʻole kolohe i hoʻonui ʻia ka ʻae a me ka manawa pinepine o ka moekolohe extramarital (Zillmann & Bryant, 1988a) pili i nā kaohi a manaʻo paha he kūlohelohe ka moekolohe a ʻoi aku ka makemake ʻole ʻia o ka male. Eia kekahi, ʻo nā kāne i nānā i ke kiʻi ʻoniʻoni i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni i loko o ka makahiki i hala e ʻae ana i ka moekolohe extramarital, ua hoʻonui ʻia ka nui o nā hoa kolohe i loko o ka makahiki i hala, a ʻoi aku ka nui o ka hana ʻana i ka moekolohe i uku ʻia ma mua o ka poʻe i ʻole ( Wright & Randall, 2012). Ua hōʻike pū kekahi mau kiʻi kolohe i nā moe kolohe (e pili ana i nā moe pili) 3 mau makahiki ma hope aku, me kaʻikeʻole o ka hoʻopiʻi hou (Wright, 2012).

ʻO ka ʻike o nā hoa i ka ʻai pilikia

Nānā ʻole i nā hopena āpau o ka hoʻohana ʻana o nā ponokala kiʻi, ʻike maopopo ʻia aia kekahi mau hihia i hiki ai ke ʻike ʻia ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā kiʻi ponokalaa me he pilikia lā, e ka mea kūʻai aku a i ʻole ka hoa o ka mea kūʻai aku ʻO kēia mau hoa hana pinepine nā wahine e pili ana i ka ʻai ʻana ma ke ʻano he ʻano nui o ke ʻano moekolohe manaʻo koʻikoʻi (Schneider, 2000). Hōʻike nā moʻolelo i hana ʻia e kēia mau wahine i ke kiʻi o ka mea e hana ana ke lilo nā pilikia i nā kiʻi pono ʻole (Bergner & Bridges, 2002; ʻO Schneider, 2000).

Keahi (2000), no ka laʻana, ua nānā i nā moʻolelo o 91 mau wahine (a me ʻekolu mau kāne) i ʻike i nā hopena maikaʻi ʻole o ka hana cybersexual a kahi hoa. Ua ʻike kēia mau kānaka i ke kaumaha kaumaha ma luna o ka hana a kā lāua hoa, manaʻo kumakaia, haʻalele ʻia, hoʻohaʻahaʻa ʻia, ʻeha, a huhū hoʻi. Ua ʻike lākou i nā hopena ʻokoʻa koʻikoʻi, ke hoʻohālikelike nei iā lākou iho me nā wahine i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni a me ka manaʻo hiki ʻole ke hoʻokūkū iā lākou e pili ana i ka moekolohe. ʻO nā poʻe i hoʻāʻo e uku ma o ka loaʻa ʻana o ka moekolohe me kā lākou mau hoa ʻaʻole i kūleʻa. Eia kekahi, makemake nui ʻole ka poʻe komo i ka moekolohe me nā hoa a lākou i manaʻo ai ua kumakaia iā lākou, a ua haʻalele hoʻi kā lākou mau hoa i ka moekolohe ma ka makemake i nā ponokala. ʻO ka hapa nui i loiloi hou i ka pilina ponoʻī, e ʻimi nei i ka hoʻokaʻawale a haʻalele paha i ko lākou pili pili ʻana i ka maikaʻi. Ua loaʻa nā ʻike like e nā mea noiʻi ʻē aʻe (e laʻa me Bergner & Bridges, 2002). Eia nō naʻe, kahi mea hoʻohilahila nui i kēia mau aʻo ʻana ʻo ia ka confuration o nā ponokala kiʻi me ka lawehala ʻole a hoʻopunipuni (Resch & Alderson, 2013). Ua nui nā hana a ka poʻe kāne e hūnā ana a me ka wahaheʻeʻana i kā lākou mau hana pūnaewele, aʻo ka hōʻehaʻole i hoʻonā i kaʻeha a me ka kumakaia e like me ka nui aʻoi aʻe paha o nā ponokala kiʻi.

ʻOiai paha e hōʻehaʻeha kēia mau moʻolelo,ʻaʻole lākou e haʻi mai iā mākou i ka nui o nā mea i loaʻa. Eia naʻe, hoʻokahi o nā huli (Bridges et al., 2003) ʻike i ka hapa nui o nā wahine (30 o 100) i hōʻike i kā lākou hoa kiʻi ponokala kiʻi e like me ke kaumaha. Ua hoʻonui ko lākou pilikia i ka hoʻonui ʻana o ka ʻai a ua ʻike ʻia e nā wahine a me nā wahine makua ma mua o ka pili aloha ʻana a me nā wahine ʻōpio. Hōʻike kēia ʻike i nā ʻike i hōʻike ʻia e Schneider (2000), akā naʻe mamao loa mai ka lawaiʻa, hiki ke maʻalahi i ka hoʻokiʻekiʻe.

Hoʻohui pū i ka hoʻohana ponokala a me ka hemo

Hōʻike ka ʻikepili mai ka General Social Survey (GSS) i nā pilina kūlike ma waena o nā kiʻi ponokala kiʻi (e nānā ana i kahi wikiō ponokala pūnaewele a i ʻole pūnaewele ma nā lā 30 i hala) a me ka hemo no nā makahiki āpau ma waena o 1973 a me 2010, me ka pilina e loaʻa ana ka ikaika i ka manawa (ʻo ia hoʻi kēlā mau nāna i hoʻopau i nā ponokala kiʻi, ma ke kaulike ma o ka ʻikepili, 60% ʻoi aku paha ka hemo o ka wahine ma mua o ka poʻe i haʻalele ʻole, me nā makahiki i hala iho nei e hōʻike nei i ka hui ikaika loa; Doran & Price, 2014). Hoʻohui ʻia, kahi loiloi longitudinal o ka ʻikepili pae kiʻekiʻe ma luna o 3 mau makahiki (Shumway & Daines, 2011) e hōʻike ana i ka pilina paʻa manawa ma waena o ka male male male a me nā helu kau inoa no nā makasina ponokala kiʻi kaulana.r = .44), ʻoiai ke kaohi ʻana i nā ʻano mea like ʻole. ʻO Shumway and Daines (2011) i koho ʻia he 10% o nā hemo a pau i kū ʻia i nā makahiki 1960 a me 1970 hiki ke hāʻawi ʻia i nā kiʻi ponokala kiʻi.

Paʻi

ʻO ka hopohopo nui o nā mea noiʻi ponokala kiʻi ka pilina ma waena o ka hōʻike ʻana i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni a me nā ʻano hana kolohe nui, kahi hopohopo i hoʻonui ʻia e nā kiʻi o ka huhū i nā kiʻi ponokala kiʻi i ka manawa (Bridges, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, Sun, & Liberman, 2010). ʻOiai ʻo nā mea i pili e pili ana i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni a me ka huhū hiki ke hōʻike kūʻē, ʻike ʻia kahi moʻolelo kūlike ʻole i ka mālamalama o nā ʻike meta-analitika (Allen, DʻAlessio, & Brezgel, 1995; Mundorf et al., 2007). ʻO ka hōʻike ʻana i nā kiʻi paʻi kiʻi ʻoniʻoni ʻole kolohe i hoʻonui i ka huhū, keu hoʻi ke kāne like ka mea i hoʻopaʻa ʻia, akā ke hoʻonāukiuki ʻia nā mea komo (e laʻa me Donnerstein & Hallam, 1978). Hōʻike kēia i ka hoʻonāukiuki ka hoʻonāuki wale i ka wā e hoʻohaunaele ai nā haumāna i ka huhūʻana no ka huhū, e like me kahi kuhiakau hoʻololi.5

Ua hōʻike ʻia ka hōʻike ʻana i nā ponokala kiʻi kolohe e kōkua i ka huhū. Hōʻike nā mākala Meta i nā hopena i ʻoi aku ka ikaika no ka ʻike ʻana i nā ponokala kiʻi kolohe e pili ana i nā kiʻi pono ʻole ʻole (Allen, DʻAlessio, & Brezgel, 1995),ʻoiai ua hoʻohaʻahaʻaʻia ka hopena e ke kāne o ke kanaka, kōkua i ka hakakā wale nō ke hoʻonāukiukiʻia nā kāne e kū'ē i nā wāhine (e like me Donnerstein, 1980a). ʻO kēia hana kolohe ka mea hoʻonāukiuki i ka huhū ma mua o ka hōʻeuʻeuʻana i nāʻano hanaʻino'ē aʻe, e hōʻike ana i ka piliʻana o ka wahine a me ka huhū i nā ala maʻamau e kōkua ai i ka hoʻonāukiuki i nā wāhine (Donnerstein, 1983). ʻO kēia mauʻike i alakaʻiʻia ai nā mea noiʻi mai kahi kuhiakau e hoʻololi ai i ka hoʻololi, e wehewehe ana i nā kiʻi ponoʻole e pili ana i nā hoʻonaʻauao kaiapuni i hoʻolakoʻia e Bandura a me nā mea noiʻi'ē aʻe (Bandura, 2011; Bandura & McClelland, 1977; Mundorf et al., 2007).6Pono e wehewehe ʻia nā hopena e pili ana i ka hoʻouka kaua me ka akahele. ʻOiai inā hiki ke hoʻopili ʻia nā ʻike mai ka hale hana i ka honua maoli, maopopo ʻole i ka lōʻihi o ka hopena o nā kiʻi ponokala kiʻi (ʻoi aku ma mua o 20 mau minuke; Zillmann, Hoyt, & Day, 1974; ma lalo o hoʻokahi pule; ʻO Malamuth & Ceniti, 1986), a me ka hopena o ka hopena o ka hoʻonaninaniʻana i nā kiʻi ponoʻole, heʻano nāwaliwali paha ia, no ka ponoʻole o nā kiʻi ponoʻole (r = <.2; Allen, DʻAlessio, & Brezgel, 1995). Ma muli o nā palena kūikawā kūikawā, he mea kūpono ke nānā i nā hopena maʻemaʻe i ka huhū i loaʻa i loko o ka pilina aloha, kahi o ka paio ma waena o nā hoa hiki ke hanaʻia (Fitness, 2001). ʻAʻole pono nā kānaka e hana me ka huhū o ke kino no ia ʻano hopena e hōʻino ai i kā lākou pili pili - hiki paha iā lākou ke pane me kahi ʻano koʻikoʻi a hoʻopaʻi paha o ka ʻōlelo, kahi hōʻino, a me kahi poʻohiwi anu (Metts & Cupach, 2007). Hiki i nā kiʻi kiʻi kiʻi ke alakaʻi i nā mea kūʻai i keʻano liʻiliʻi,ʻano palekana paha, aiʻole i ka hoʻopaʻi hou i ka hoʻonāukiukiʻia e kekahi hoa aloha, a hoʻonui i ka pilina hoa pilikino. Hiki iāʻoe ke nānā i kēia kūlana, no ka mea, ua lawa paha kēia mau mea i ka hoʻololiʻana i keʻano o ka pilina aloha, e hoʻonui ana i ka pilikino a me ka emiʻole o ka pilina (Rusbult, 1986).

Hoʻopilikia i ka wahine a me ka hoʻokaumaha

ʻOiai ke kākoʻo maikaʻiʻiaʻana o ka pilina ma waena o nā kiʻi kalakala a me ka huhū, aia ma loko o ka hopena o ka hale wehewehe,ʻo ka pili i waena o nā kiʻi ponokala a me ka hoʻoulu kauaʻana heʻoi aku ka maʻalahi. Hōʻike i kaʻikepili nui kaʻikeʻana i ka hoʻohuiʻana i nā kiʻi ponoʻole i ka piʻiʻana o ke kolohe waleʻana (Wongsurawat, 2006), akā hōʻike nā ʻanuʻu pae kū hoʻokahi i kahi moʻokāki ʻokoʻa, me ka ʻai ʻana i nā kiʻi ʻino (akā ʻaʻole nonviolent) e pili ana me ka hoʻonui ʻia o ka likere a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka ikaika e loaʻa ka moekolohe (Demaré, Lips, & Briere, 1993). Ua pili pūʻia ka manaʻo me nā hana i hoʻomanaʻoʻia o ka hoʻoulu kaua (Boeringer, 1994), a ʻo kēlā me kēia mea i hōʻike ʻia i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni ʻole akā hoʻohaʻahaʻa i loko o ke keʻena hōʻike pū kekahi i ka ʻoi aku ka nui o ka pue wahine ma mua o nā mea i hōʻike ʻole ʻia (Check & Guloien, 1989). Hōʻike nā kāne i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni o ka pue wale ʻana i ke kuleana o ka wahine i hōʻeha ʻia no ka mea i hana ʻia, ʻoiai inā i pau ka wikiō me kahi orgasm wahine (e pili ana i kahi hopena kolohe; Donnerstein & Berkowitz, 1981), a me nā hōʻuluʻuluʻana o nāʻike helu hoʻoponopono a me nā hoʻokolohua hoʻokolohua uaʻike i ka piʻiʻana o nā ponokala kolohe a me nā ponoʻole i ka hōʻoiaʻana i nā mele loli (Allen, Emmers, et al., 1995; Mundorf et al., 2007).

ʻO nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni, i kēia ʻano, ʻike ʻia e kamaʻilio i ka leʻaleʻa wahine a me ka paipai ʻana i ka hana moekolohe, akā ʻaʻole i hoʻololi ʻia kēia ʻano e ka hōʻike ʻana i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni. ʻO ia mau hopena e nalo loa ke hele pū ʻia nā kiʻi ponokala me nā kūkala ʻōlelo, nā haʻi ʻōlelo, a i ʻole nā ​​mea aʻo ʻē aʻe e hōʻoki i nā kaʻao lape (Check & Malamuth, 1984; ʻO Donnerstein & Berkowitz, 1981), he'ōlelo hōʻoia e kākoʻoʻia e nāʻikeʻekolu-analytic (Mundorf et al., 2007). ʻO ia mau manaʻo e hāʻawi i ka manaʻo e hiki ke hoʻoponopono a hoʻopau paha i nā hopena o ka hoʻopiʻiʻana ma o nā hana hoʻonaʻauao male.

ʻO ka hakakā mau ma waena o nā hōʻuluʻulu hōʻuluʻulu a me nā ʻike i loaʻa i kēlā me kēia pae ka mea nui loa i ka pilina ma waena o nā ponokala kiʻi a me ka pue wahine. ʻO ka noiʻi wale nō e nānā i nā pae ʻelua i ka manawa like - ma o ka noi ʻana o ka hoʻohālikelike laina multilevel (MLM; Snijders & Bosker, 2011) -E hiki ke hoʻohui maoli i kēia mau ʻike kūlike ʻole. Eia nō naʻe, hoʻohana kekahi mau mea noiʻi i kahi hiʻohiʻona confluence e hoʻonā i kēia ʻokoʻa, e hōʻike ana i ka ʻōlelo o ka hōʻeha kolohe e pono ai ka hui ʻana o nā mea like ʻole. Inā ʻo nā ponokala kiʻi i waena o ia mau kumu, pono mākou e ʻike i kahi hopena nui wale i nā mea i makaʻu no ka hana kolohe, a ʻo ia nō ka mea i loaʻa i kekahi (e like me, Malamuth & Huppin, 2005). ʻO ka makaʻu o ka hana kolohe ʻana he haʻahaʻa haʻahaʻa ia me ka nānā ʻole ʻia i nā kiʻi pono ʻole o nā kiʻi pono ʻole, koe wale no nā mea nona ka kiʻekiʻe o ka hana kolohe. o ka hana kolohe (Malamuth & Huppin, 2005).

ʻO kēia mau ʻike e pili ana i ka hoʻokau wahine, ʻoiai equivocal, he hopena no ka hopena o ka ʻohana. Inā pili ka pilina ma waena o nā ponokala kiʻi a me ka hōʻeha kolohe ma ke ʻano maʻamau, a laila aia pū kekahi pili i kēia lā a i ʻole ka pue wahine (no ka kūkā kamaʻilio ʻana i ka lā a me ka pue wale ʻana o ka wahine, e ʻike iā Clinton-Sherrod & Walters, 2011),ʻaʻohe meaʻino aʻoi aku paha iʻoi aku ka lōʻihi ma mua o ka hoʻopaʻa wale waleʻana o ka malihini (Bergen, 1996), a e kūpono nō hoʻi ma ke ʻano he hoa pilikino maikaʻi ʻole. ʻOiai ʻo nā ʻikepili liʻiliʻi e kamaʻilio pololei i nā hopena o nā ponokala kiʻi i ka lā a i ʻole ka pue wale ʻana o ka wahine, ua ʻike ʻia nā ʻano noiʻi like ʻole e hoʻāʻo pinepine nā kāne e hoʻomaʻamaʻa pinepine i kā lākou wahine i ka moekolohe e hana hou i nā hiʻohiʻona ponokala (e like me Finkelhor & Yllo, 1983; ʻO Moreau, Boucher, Hebert, & Lemelin, 2015). ʻO ka noi hou aku ma kēia wahi, he hoʻolako maikaʻi ia i nā puke e kū nei.

Nāʻokoʻa moe kolohe a me nā hana

Ua pili kekahi mau hoʻokolohua hoʻokolohua i nā ponokala kiʻi me nā lawena a me nā ʻano wahine. ʻO kahi laʻana, ua manaʻo nā kānaka noiʻi e paipai ka ponokala kiʻi i ka hana moekolohe ma o ka priming a heterosexual self-schema (McKenzie Mohr & Zanna, 1990). Ua ʻike nā kāne i komo i nā kiʻi pono ʻole ʻole a i ʻole wikiō kūpaʻa kūleʻa a laila ninaninau ʻia e kahi wahine wahine. ʻO nā kāne kāne kolohe ʻole i hōʻike ʻia i nā ponokala kiʻi i hoʻomanaʻo nui aʻe no nā hiʻohiʻona o ke kime a me ka hoʻoliʻiliʻi no kāna mau ʻike noʻeau. ʻO ka wahine nīnauele wahine, makapō i ke ʻano hoʻokolohua, i koho i nā mea i hōʻike ʻia i nā kiʻi ʻoniʻoni ʻoi aku ka nui o ka moekolohe ma mua o nā mea i hōʻike ʻia i ka wikiō kūlike ʻole. Ua alakaʻi ʻia kahi hoʻohālikelike manaʻo i nā hopena like (Jansma, Linz, Mulac, & Imrich, 1997),7

a hōʻike i nā hopena wale nō me ka hoʻonanea ponoʻole ma mua o ka hanaʻole o ka hanaʻino. Ua kākoʻoʻia kēia mau ho'āʻo hoʻokolohua e nā haʻawina ma nā kiʻi ponoʻole i nā kiʻi pono. Hiki ke pili pono nā'ōlohelohe kiʻi i ka noʻonoʻoʻana o nā wāhine i nā moe kolohe (Burns, 2001), a me nā ana o ka lokomaikaʻi (Garos, Beggan, Kluck, & Easton, 2004) a me ka ʻenemi (Hald, Malamuth, & Lange, 2013) sexism. Hiki ke hoʻonuiʻia nā helu hōʻeuʻeu hostile ma ka hoʻokolohua hoʻokolohua i nā ponokala kiʻiʻole (e like me Hald et al., 2013). ʻO nā hope, ua pili nā haʻawina i nā kiʻi ponoʻole e hoʻohana ai i nā manaʻo kuhikahiʻole (Burns, 2001; Hald et al., 2013) -ʻOiai ʻaʻole i loaʻa kekahi i ka pilina ma waena o ka hoʻohana ʻana o nā ponokala kiʻi a me kēlā ʻano (e laʻa me, Barak & Fisher, 1997) -Me nā ʻikepili longitudinal e hōʻike nei i ka hoʻohana ʻana o nā ponokala kiʻi i ka hoʻonui ʻana i ke kūʻē ʻana i ka hana affirmative no nā wahine, me ka ʻole o ka hōʻike o ka causality hoʻi (Wright & Funk, 2013). ʻO ke kuanaʻike nui e pili ana i kēia mau hui ka ʻike kaiāulu. Ke nānā nei nā mea kūʻai aku i ka mālama ʻia ʻana o nā wahine e like me nā mea moekolohe, hele mai lākou e hana i nā ʻano a me nā ʻano e hōʻike ana i ke ʻano moekolohe (McKenzie Mohr & Zanna, 1993).

Hiki i ka hoʻokipa ke hana i ka hopena i ka ikaika o ka pilina aloha. Hiki i nā kiʻiʻoniʻoni ke alakaʻi i nā kāne e hoʻokau i kaʻoi aku o ka maikaʻi ma nāʻano o keʻano o kā lākou mau hoa (ʻo ia hoʻi ka hoʻohaʻahaʻa i ka manawa) ma mua o ko lākou mau manaʻo noʻonoʻo, i hiki ai ke hōʻeha i ka pilina ma hope o ka hala. Hiki i nā manaʻo hoʻokae a me nā wāhine ke hoʻoikaika i ka ho'āʻoʻana e kāohi pono i nā hoa aloha (e pili ana me ka hana kolohe a hoa pili; Whitaker, 2013), no laila e hōʻike ana i kekahi ala'ē aʻe e hiki ai i nā ponokala kiʻi ke hoʻonui i ka pilina pilikino maikaʻi.