Article: 1622177 | Received 21 Nov 2018, Accepted 18 May 2019, Accepted author version posted online: 21 May 2019
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to investigate if workplace victimization arouses employees’ internet pornography addiction and how it influences their job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. And, this study explores if perceived organizational support can be an organizational factor moderating the relationship between workplace victimization and internet pornography addiction. For this, this study collected data from 305 employees in Korean companies through a survey method. In the results, first, the more employees suffer from workplace victimization, they are more likely to be addictive in internet pornography. Second, the more addictive employees are in internet pornography, their job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior decreases. Finally, when employees perceive more support provided by the organization, they are less likely to be addictive in internet pornography which is aroused by workplace victimization.
Keyword: workplace victimization, internet pornography addiction, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, perceived organizational support
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- Introduction
When addiction is defined as a dysfunctional relationship between a person and an object, it is easier to understand the addiction and its impact at work. Although there is no consensus among researchers about the definition of addiction, we agree that the traits of addiction include loss of control, consequences and compulsion. Also, the relationship between people and things is most influenced by the interaction of biological, psychological, and social forces (Schaffer, 1996). Subclinical risk factors (e.g., impulsivity, poor parental supervision, and delinquency) also are common across chemical and behavioral expressions of addiction (Brenner, & Collins, 1998; Caetano et al., 2001; Vitaro et al., 2001). In addition, research shows that individuals who engage in one problem behavior are likely to engage in others (Caetano et al., 2001; Shaffer & Hall, 2002). Finally, various sociodemographic risk factors (e.g., relating to poverty, geography, family, and peer groups) can influence the onset and course of both drug use and other activities (e.g., gambling) that can similarly affect the likelihood of developing addiction (Evans, & Kantrowitz, 2002; Christiansen et al., 2002; Gambino et al., 1993; Lopes, 1987).
Because of this nature, investigating addictive behavior at work is important for top management to manage employees with addiction. Most studies have paid attention to the use of alcohol in the workplace. This study is concerned with how the workplace causes problem drinking and how drinking behavior affects the workplace. For example, employees who engage in negative behaviors at work, such as low labor force integration, low level supervision, and low work visibility, may have higher alcohol use (Frone, 1999).
Increased internet use over the past few decades has been accompanied by an increased consumption and societal acceptance of pornography (Kor, Zilcha-Mano, Fogel, Mikulincer, Reid, & Potenza, 2014). Many researchers have paid attention to the addictive nature of certain sexual behaviors and practices, such as pornography use (Griffiths, 2012; Kafka, 2001; 2010; Young, 2008). Generally, previous studies have focused on adolescents, such as those by Brown & L’Engle (2009) and Peter & Valkenburg (2011). Also, researchers have been mostly interested in only sex-related behaviors such as sexually aggressive behavior (Kingston, Malamuth, Fedoroff & Marshall, 2009; Malamuth & Huppin, 2005) and casual sex behavior (Morgan, 2011),
However, most of the previous studies have focused on individual behaviors when examining this excessive play of internet pornography, while research about internet pornography addiction in the context of workplace is rare. As internet media has increasingly been used in the workplace, it is necessary to investigate the effects of such internet pornography exposure on the organizational behaviors of employees. If employees use internet pornography excessively rather than work hard, it becomes a matter of great concern in the workplace. Thus, internet pornography addiction should be viewed as one of the serious organizational problems arising in today’s workplace.
In this study, we will examine the organizational behaviors related to internet pornography addiction. we will investigate the organizational factors which arouse internet pornography addiction. And, then we will look at how internet pornography addiction influences the organizational or social attitudes of employees. Finally, we will discuss ways how internet pornography addiction can be managed in the workplace.
- Theoretical Background and Hypothesis
2.1 Antecedent
Correlational research suggests that reports of more frequent pornography use have been positively associated with feelings of isolation and loneliness (Schneider, 2000). Recently some of researches have paid their attention to workplace victimization as an organizational factor which arouses feelings of isolation and loneliness. Following Buss (1961), I define aggressive action as interpersonal behavior that inflicts harm, injury, or discomfort upon the target of the act. This definition is consistent with commonly accepted definitions of aggressive behavior in the social psychology and organizational behavior literatures (Bandura 1973; O’Leary-Kelly et al. 1996). My definition of victimization as being based on the target’s perception of an aggressive action coincides with Quinney’s (1974) assertion that the labeling of someone as a victim is a largely subjective process. Although we emphasize the target’s perspective in this study, I note that the concept of victimization is broad enough to include reports from perpetrators or bystanders. My aim here, however, was to identify variables that might be related to self-perceived victimization. Moreover, we believe that it is the target’s subjective experience that will ultimately have the strongest impact on their psychological and emotional responses to an aggressive act. Aquino & Bradfield (2000) invoked the concept of victimization by identifying communalities among victims, individuals who perceive that they have been exposed to aggressive actions.
The psychological distress from workplace victimization may exacerbate employees’ undesirable moods. When employees who suffer from workplace victimization experience the feelings of isolation and loneliness, they are psychologically stressed by perceiving themselves as the odd one in their workplaces. This leads such employees to engage in internet pornography even more as a way of relieving dysphoric mood states. Consequently, when internet pornography players repeat this cyclical patterns of relieving undesirable moods with internet pornography play, the level of psychological dependency on internet pornography increases. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is established.
H1: Workplace victimization is positively associated with internet pornography addiction.
2.2 Consequences
Most of researchers have generally focused on the potentially negative consequences associated with pornography use such as sexually aggressive behavior and casual sex behavior (Short et al., 2012). However, few studies of internet media addiction have been interested in the context of workplace. Like other contexts, if employees spend a lot of time using and committing themselves to internet media addiction excessively rather than work hard, it may have negative consequences in the workplace. The present study suggests job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior as two kinds of consequences which are negatively influenced by internet media addiction. First, job satisfaction conveys useful information about an individual’s economic, social, and personal life as it is a major determinant of labor market mobility (Freeman, 1978), job performance (Mount et al., 2006), and personal well-being (Rode, 2004). Second, organizational citizenship behavior can be considered to be an individual’s voluntary work beyond the role assigned to him/her in the organization (Bateman & Organ, 1983). Therefore, organizational citizenship behavior can be regarded as a subset of pro-social organizational behavior (Cetin et al., 2003). A large number of factors influencing job satisfaction have been recognized that consist of organizational aspects, job aspects and personal aspects (Sandra, 2012). The predictors of organizational citizenship behavior mainly include dispositional (i.e., personal characteristics) and situational (i.e., leader-member exchange) factors (Podsakoff et al., 2000). However, no research has investigated internet media addiction influencing job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior.
Similar to other contexts, when employees use internet pornography more in terms of time spent on usage, it will cause great concern in the workplace. Specifically, if such employees are absorbed in internet pornography to avoid negative feelings, they are less interested in their real life in workplace, which makes their job satisfaction decrease. And if so, because they don’t have time enough to do their voluntary work beyond the role assigned to them in the organization their roles in workplace, their organizational citizenship behavior decreases. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is established.
H2: Internet pornography addiction is negatively associated with job satisfaction
H3: Internet pornography addiction is positively associated with organizational citizenship behavior
2.3 Moderators
If research is to contribute to the prevention and constructive management of stress from workplace victimization, as well as the healing of individual and organizational wounds resulting from such interaction, different kinds of information must be provided. The research questions addressed may be formulated as follows: who does what to whom, why, where, when, for how long, and with what consequences? The thorough documentation of the frequencies, risks groups, behaviors involved, and its consequences has just started. However, research on workplace victimization must also go beyond problem documentation. Therefore, to implement effective interventions, it needs to develop theoretical models and test it empirically.
The conservation of resources (COR) theory predicts that people will invest or draw in other resources that they own or have access to in order to reduce the net loss of resources. Ten Brummelhuis & Bakker (2012) suggested in an elaborate explanation of the COR theory that the environment in which people live, besides their pool of resources, can be used as a resource for buffering. One workspace resource that appears to buffer the stressor constraints is recognized as perceived organizational support (POS). Employees must formulate support expectations based on how much they are interested in the organization’s contribution and employee welfare (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchinson, & Sowa, 1986). Therefore, we expect POS to reduce the positive relationship between the workplace victimization and internet pornography for several reasons. First, POS provides access to related resources in the workplace, so employees can be refused to supplement or stockpile resources. For example, support for organizational policies, such as personal holidays and flexible workplace placement, can provide an opportunity for employees to get out of work (Allen, 2001). Ancillary work environments can also help reduce work demands that help colleagues replace work assigned to them and preserve remaining resources (Ray & Miller, 1994). Second, a supportive working environment indicates that an employee is a valuable member of an organization that can lead to resource accumulation by positively affecting the basic human desire for self-worth and positive affect on self-worth (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Because feelings of self-esteem and bondage are important social and emotional resources, complementary or promoting events or experiences can potentially respond to resource demands for workplace victimization. Therefore, when employees perceive more support provided by the organization, they are more likely to endure their feelings of isolation and loneliness and are less likely to be addictive in internet pornography. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is established.
H4: Perceived organizational support decreases the positive relationship between workplace bullying and internet pornography addiction.
- Methodology
3.1 Sample
The objective of the study was to identify the factors of organizational behaviors related to internet pornography addiction based on empirical analysis. These factors can be identified by measuring the organization’s members’ perceptions of their workplace situation. The survey research method is very useful in collecting data from a large number of individuals in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost. Hence, for the current study, the questionnaire survey was used for data collection.
This study is based on responses from workers in Korean companies. Only 319 responses were useable for analysis. Among the participants, 152 (47.6%) were men and 167 (52.4%) women. The age distribution includes 24.1% in their 20s, 25.7% in their 30s, 25.4% in their 40s, and 24.8% in their 50s. The distribution of company size based on number of employees is 21.9% with less than 10, 28.8% with11-50 employees, 29.5% with 51-300 employees, 7.8% with 301-1,000 employees, and 11.9% with more than 1001 employees. With regards to the industry which their company is involved in, 27.9% are in manufacturing, 10.3% in construction, 33.2% in service, 6.0% in public agency, 8.2% in wholesale-retail, and 14.4% are in other industries. Most of the respondents hold a staff position (42.3%), 18.5% are assistant managers, 15.4% are managers, 14.4% are senior managers, 6.9% are directors, while 2.5% hold other position levels. According to tenure, 51.1% have been in their company for less than 5 years, 25.5% for 5 – 10 years, 13.8% for 10–15 years=, 4.4% for 15 – 20 years, and 6.3% for more than 20 years. Based on level of highest educational attainment, 0.6% only finished middle school, 16.3% finished high school, 21.0% went to community college, 51.4% finished their undergraduate studies, while 10.7% went to graduate school. Majority of the respondents are married (57.4%), with the rest being single (42.6%).
3.2 Procedure
All participants received a paper-and-pencil questionnaire with an accompanying letter that explained the purpose of the survey, emphasized voluntary participation, and guaranteed confidently. Participants were asked to fill out the questionnaire and put it back into an envelope that was collected by the researcher.
3.3 Measure
<Table 1> shows the measurements of the variables which this study used
3.4 Data analysis
Data analysis was conducted in three steps. First, factor analysis was conducted to examine the reliability and validity of the variables included in this study. Second, we tested relationship between variables. In the third step, hierarchical regression was performed to test the proposed hypotheses.
- Results
4.1 Verification of reliability and validity
The validity of variables was verified through the principal components method and factor analysis with the varimax method. The criteria for determining the number of factors is defined as a 1.0 Eigen value. We applied factors for analysis only if the factor loading was greater than 0.5 (factor loading represents the correlation scale between a factor and other variables). In the factor analysis, we eliminated two items in the variables of excessive use and control difficulties. The reliability of variables was judged by internal consistency as assessed by Cronbach’s alpha. We used surveys and regarded each as one measure only if their Cronbach’s alpha values were 0.7 or higher.
4.2 Relationship between variables
<Table 2> summarizes the Pearson correlation test results between variables and reports the degree of multi-collinearity between independent variables. The minimum tolerance of 0.812 and the maximum variance inflation factor of 1.223 show that the statistical significance of the data analysis was not compromised by multi-collinearity.
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4.3 Hypothesis testing
First, demographic variables, workplace victimization, and the multiplicative interaction terms between workplace victimization and POS were entered. To analyze the relationship between workplace violence including workplace victimization and internet pornography addiction, the results in <Table 3> show that workplace victimization has statistical significances with sub-factors of internet pornography addiction. Direct workplace victimization is positively related with excessive use (β = .102, p < .01), control difficulties (β = .114, p < .05), and use for escape/avoid negative emotions (β = .134, p < .01). These imply that the more direct workplace victimization people perceive in the workplace, the stronger their internet pornography addiction is, which is also suggested in H1.
Second, POS shows the interactions between workplace victimization and the sub-factors of internet pornography addiction. POS was found to have a negative effect on the relationship between direct workplace victimization and excessive use (β = -.113, p < .01), and the relationship between direct workplace victimization and use for escape/avoid negative emotions (β = -.131, p < .01). Based on the results, when people have higher POS in the workplace, workplace victimization have a weaker impact on their internet pornography addiction, which is also suggested in H4.
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Finally, <Table 4> summarizes the effects of sub-factors of internet pornography addiction on the sub-factors of job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. Regarding job satisfaction, it was found that distress/functional problems has a negative effect on colleague satisfaction (β = -.182, p < .01). Excessive use has a positive effect on colleague satisfaction (β = -.112, p < .01), while it has a positive effect on pay satisfaction (β = .158, p < .01). Use for escape/avoid negative emotions has a negative effect on work satisfaction (β = -.161, p < .01). Regarding organizational citizenship behavior, control difficulties has a negative effect on individual OCB (β = -.173, p < .01) and organizational OCB (β = -.129, p < .01). These show that the stronger the internet pornography addiction people have, the weaker are their job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior, which are also suggested in the H2 and H3.
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- Conclusions
5.1 Summary and Discussion
The present study investigated if employees’ internet pornography addiction influences their job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. It also examined the impact of workplace victimization on employees’ internet pornography addiction and how perceived organizational support can moderate the relationship between workplace victimization and employees’ internet pornography addiction. The findings can be summarized as follows. First, each phenomenon of internet pornography addiction decreases each relevant factor of job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. However, on the contrary to expectations, some of sub-factors of internet pornography addiction increase pay satisfaction. For example, when they use internet pornography more excessively, they are more likely to be satisfied with their pay level. The present study infers that this result is due to the characteristics of pay satisfaction. Among job satisfactions, because the satisfactions related to work or colleagues are related to intangible things such as situation, atmosphere or psychological state, they can be influenced by psychological states that are aroused from internet pornography addiction. Moreover, if employees commit themselves excessively to the internet pornography world, they are likely to cause problems or trouble with their work or colleagues. However, unlike other satisfactions, because the satisfactions related to pay is influenced by tangible rewards. And these satisfactions are more increased relatively when employees are working less due to being addicted to internet pornography. Second, direct workplace victimization is shown to increase each relevant factor of internet pornography addiction. Further, perceived organizational support decreases the positive impact of each form of direct workplace victimization on relevant factors of internet pornography addiction.
5.2 Implications
The present study makes two kinds of research contributions. First, this study introduces internet pornography addiction in the context of the workplace and investigates workplace victimization related to them. It is the first to empirically verify the influence of workplace victimization on internet pornography addiction in the workplace. Second, the study suggests and empirically verifies that perceived organizational support is an organizational factor moderating the relationship between workplace victimization and internet pornography addiction. Moreover, the present study has some managerial implications to corporate executives who try to manage employees’ organizational attitudes. Because internet pornography addiction occurs in reality, it is also not ignorable in the context of the workplace. Further, as the competition between companies become stronger, companies require more internal competition among employees and employees get more victimized. It arouses their internet pornography addiction, which in turn decreases their job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. Given this situation, corporate executives need to counsel employees who are shown to be addicted to internet pornography and develop a variety of programs to increase their perceived organizational support.
5.3 Limitations and Future Research Directions
The analysis results provided several insights into the relationships between organizational behaviors and internet media addiction. However, the present study must also acknowledge the following limitations. First, we collected the responses from employees who are working at Korean companies. There may be some national cultural issues in the organizational context. Due to these national cultural issues, the results of the study may vary from country to country. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize the results of this study. To this end, comparative studies between countries should be made in this study model. Especially, since the national cultures of East and West are distinct, comparative studies between East and Western countries will be necessary.
Second, because the variables were all measured at the same time, it is not sure that the relationship is consistent. Although the survey questions are arranged in reverse order of the analytical model, causal problems between variables may exist. Therefore, although longitudinal research methods are not easy to collect data, it is necessary to overcome causal problems through longitudinal research methods in the future.
Finally, although this study has shown meaningful results for workplace victimization, there is a need to identify a clear difference between workplace victimization and other workplace violence. This is because managerial plan should be different for each workplace violence. Future research should examine other types of impact of dark leadership such as workplace bullying and organizational politics on employee psychological distress.
PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Victimization is characterized as aggressive action as interpersonal behavior that inflicts harm, injury, or discomfort upon the target of the act.
The purpose of this study is to investigate if workplace victimization arouses employees’ internet pornography addiction and how it influences their job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. And, this study explores if perceived organizational support can be an organizational factor moderating the relationship between workplace victimization and internet pornography addiction. In the results, first, the more employees suffer from workplace victimization, they are more likely to be addictive in internet pornography. Second, the more addictive employees are in internet pornography, their job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior decreases. Finally, when employees perceive more support provided by the organization, they are less likely to be addictive in internet pornography which is aroused by workplace victimization.
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