Chiitiko cheNhoroondo uye Chiitiko cheZvinyadzisira uye Maitiro Okudanana: Zvinokonzerwa neVabvunzurudzi veMhuri (2015)

Iyo 1970 komisheni

Kunyangwe kutarisana nekumanikidzwa kwakanyanya nguva (sekuti, vafundisi vanopihwa basa vaine 9 mwedzi yekupa mushumo uzere), zvichikurisa nekushaikwa kweiyo nzira kana theorytical hwaro (Wilson, 1971), iyo komisheni yakagumisa kuti "pakanga pasina humbowo hunobvumika kusvika parizvino kuti kuratidzira zvigadzirwa zvepabonde zvinoita basa rakakura mukupenengura kweupombwe kana utsotsi pakati pevechidiki kana vakuru" (US Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, 1972, p. 169). Uku kutarisisa pahunhu hwematsotsi hunogona kunge hwakakonzerwa neyakajairika "yakasununguka tsika" maonero enhau mhedzisiro (Linz & Malamuth, 1993), yaishora kuferefetwa kunze kwekunge humbowo hwakananga hwaigona kuwanikwa kuti midhiya yakakonzera kurwiswa. Mimwe mhedzisiro, yakadai sekukanganisa kurambana uye chirwere chepabonde, yakambotariswa kuti iiswe, asi komisheni iyi yakazosarudza misoro yavanonzwa ichiratidza kuti inokonzeresa kuti inogona kuunganidzwa zviri nyore (Johnson, 1971. Kukuvadza kudzikama kwehukama hwerudo kwaive kwekunetseka, sezvo kwaisazivisa zvakananga nharo. Kunyangwe komisheni iyi yaisanganisira wongororo imwechete ichiongorora hupfupi hwemhedzisiro yekushandisa zvinonyadzisira pakati pevakaroora (Mann, 1970), idzi nyaya dzakatambira kushoma kutariswa kupfuura zvidzidzo zvekubatwa chibharo, mhosva, chisimba uye utsinye. Mhedzisiro ine chekuita nekuenzana kwevakadzi (iyo yaizonyanya kuve yakatanhamara; semuenzaniso, Dworkin, 1985) yakagamuchirwawo zvishoma, zvimwe chikamu nekuda kwekushomeka kwenhengo dzemakomishini evakadzi.2

Chidzidzo chekuona zvinonyadzisira mushure me1970

Kunyangwe vezvematongerwo enyika vakavhota kuti vaumbe komisheni vakaramba zvavakafunga (Nixon, 1970; Tatalovich & Daynes, 2011), vazhinji munharaunda yevadzidzi vakavabvuma. Dzimwe nyanzvi dzakaratidza kutsoropodza kwakasimba kwenzira dzekomisheni uye zvavakawana (semuenzaniso, Cline, sezvakataurwa mumushumo wevashoma weUS Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, 1972) asi izvi matambudziko akagamuchira kutarisirwa kushoma, mune mbiri uye neruzhinji (Simons, 1972). Masayendisiti mazhinji emagariro akabvumirana kuti mubvunzo wekukuvara kwekuona zvinonyadzisira wakanyatsogadziriswa (Malamuth & Donnerstein, 1982), uye vadzidzi vakatanga fungu rekutsvagisa nezvezvinyadzo izvo zvaiita kunge zvisina basa nekuongorora zvakashata zvekushandisa (semuenzaniso, Brown, Amoroso, Ware, Pruesse, & Pilkey, 1973).

Yakanga iri yekutsvagisa vaongorori, vane chekuita nehukama pakati pekumutsa uye hukasha zvakataurwa mune yekomisheni yehunyanzvi mushumo (Mosher & Katz, 1971), ndiani aizo fambisa tsvagiridzo pazvinhu zvakaipa pamberi. Semuenzaniso, vatori vechikamu vakaoneswa mafirimu ezvinonyadzisira vakatungamira zvakanyanya kushamisika nemagetsi kumakambani akavatsamwisa kudarika avo vasina kufumurwa (Zillmann, 1971), uye vaongorori vakadudzira izvi zvakawedzera kuvhunduka sekuwedzera kwehasha. Vatsvagiri ava vaisanganisira hukasha hukadzi hutsotsi hwekuona zvinonyadzisira (Malamuth, 1978), yakachengeta kuti zvinonyadzisira inogona kunge yakabatana nekubatwa chibharo, hutsinye, uye kusaenzana kwevakadzi (Brownmiller, 1975; Russell, 1988). Izvi zvidzidzo zvechisimba zvakaita sekupa humbowo hwekukuvara kwehukama hwehukama hwakaitwa ne1970 komisheni ikatadza kuburitsa, kunyanya kana zvinonyadzisira zvaisanganisira kuratidzwa kwemhirizhonga (Donnerstein & Linz, 1986. Maitiro ekuedza akabvumirawo ivo vanotsvaga kuti vatore hukama pakati pechisimba nechisimba nehukasha, zvichitaridza zvinonyadzisira mumhirizhonga inoitirwa vakadzi.

Zvinonyadzisira zvinopokana mu1980s

Sezvo kubatana kwekuyedza pakati pezvinonyadzisira uye hukasha zvakasimbiswa mukutanga kwema1980 (Donnerstein naBerkowitz, 1981; Linz, Donnerstein, & Penrod, 1984; Zillmann & Bryant, 1982), matare matatu ehurumende akaunganidzwa (Williams Committee muUnited Kingdom muna 1979, uye Fraser Committee muCanada uye Gweta Gurukota reKomisheni yeZvinyadzo muUnited States, zvese muna 1986) izvo zvakatora ongororo iyi (Einsiedel, 1988. Matare aya akatsoropodza zvikuru kubva kune vadzidzi vane chekuita nekusununguka kwevanhu (Brannigan, 1991; Fisher & Bharaki, 1991; Segal, 1990), uye vamwe vaongorori vechisimba ivo pachavo vakataura, vakakatyamadzwa nepfungwa yedata ravo vachipa rezinesi kuhurumende yekudzivirira (Linz, Penrod, & Donnerstein, 1987; Wilcox, 1987). Nekuda kweizvozvo, vazhinji vakarasa chivimbo mumabhuku anobatanidza zvinonyadzisira anoshandisa uye hukasha, vamwe vachidoma kutsoropodza kwevaongorori kuratidza kushayikwa kweuchapupu hunovimbika hwekukuvara kwevanhu munharaunda (G. Rubin, 1993).

Pakati peiyi kurwadziswa kuripo, mubvunzo wepakati wakaramba uripo: Sainzi yemagariro ingawane kusagadziriswa, humbowo hwehukama hunobatanidza kushandiswa kwezvinonyadzisira nemhirizhonga kana kurohwa kwepabonde? Chibvumirano, ipapo uye ikozvino, ndechekuti hazvigone (Boyle, 2000; Jensen, 1994). Kunyangwe chinongedzo chakadai chiripo, zvirambidzo zvehunhu zvakaita kuti kuwana humbowo hwakasimba hwekuyedza kuve kwakaoma, sezvo vaongorori vaisazomboziva vachimutsa zviito zvekubata chibharo kana chisimba, kungave murabhoritari kana mumunda (Zillmann & Bryant, 1986). Nekuti humbowo huripo hwakanga husiri hwakakodzera mhando, gakava rakadzikira nekubvumirana kushoma pane zvinoitika zvekuona zvinonyadzisira, uye vazhinji vakaramba vachiona zvinonyadzisira sezvisingakuvadzi (Fisher & Barak, 1991. Tsvagurudzo yekuongorora kubatana pakati pezvekuona zvinonyadzisira uye zvehasha zvakaburitswa, paine zvishoma zvakakurumbira (semuenzaniso, Malamuth et al., 2000).

Hondo dzevakadzi dzebonde

Sezvo zvinonyadzisira zvakauya pamberi, vakadzi vechikadzi vakakurumidza kupa mhosva yavo yakanyatsoratidzwa yevakadzi (kureva, pfungwa yekuti zvinonyadzisira inhema inoratidza vakadzi vanonakidzwa nezviito zvechisimba uye kubatwa chibharo kwavakaitirwa; Brownmiller, 1975; Millett, 1970. Aya mazwi (semuenzaniso, Dworkin, 1985; MacKinnon, 1985), Yakarongedzwa mukupera kwema1970 seVakadzi Kurwisa Zvinonyadzisira, vaive vakazvipira kudzikisira kukanganisa kwehukama munharaunda (Kirkpatrick & Zurcher, 1983). Vakapikisa kuti zvinonyadzisira zvaive chiratidzo uye chikonzero chekutongwa kwemadzimai kuburikidza nekubatwa chibharo nemhirizhonga uye kuti zvakabatsira kusimudzira kusaenzana kwevanhukadzi, kutyora kodzero dzevanhukadzi. Ichi chinzvimbo chakanakidzwa neruzhinji rwevanhu pamusoro pemakore gumi anotevera, nekuwedzera simba mune ese ezvematongerwo enyika (Fraser Commission, 1985), nemitambo yemitambo (Russell, 1988).

Asi havazi vese vechikadzi vaive vakagadzikana nenzvimbo nemano eanopikisa vatori venhau. Aya ma feminists aigara achitora anticensorship, achibvuma kuti zvinonyadzisira aive asina kunaka, asi kwete achishungurudza zvakakwana kupinza hurumende zvirambidzo (G. Rubin, 1993; Tambanudza, 1993). Vazhinji vaive vasina kugadzikana kujoina masimba nehunhu uye echiKristu anochengetedza, avo vaishora vachishora misimboti yevakadzi uye hunhu pane dzimwe nyaya (Ellis, O'Dair, & Tallmer, 1990; G. Rubin, 1993; Tambanudza, 1993). Dzidzo, vakapokana, yaive mhinduro iri nani pane kudzvinyirira, uye musika wemazano unopedzisira waderedza simba rekuona zvinonyadzisira, nokudaro ichideredza zvinokuvadza (Carse, 1995).

Paive nevamwe vadzidzi, zvakadaro, avo vaiziva kukosha kwekudzivirira kwakasimba kwezvinonyadzisira:

Kana kutsoropodza kwechikadzi kwakarurama, saka kutsigira nzvimbo yekutengesa mazano takatarisana ne "kukuvadza chaiko" kunokonzerwa nekuona zvinonyadzisira kupokana uye kusaterera. Kana zvinonyadzisira zvakafanira kupukunyuka kurwiswa kwevakadzi, kururamisa kunopfuura kwekushivirira kunodiwa. (Sherman, 1995, p. 667).

Pakupera kwe1990s, vakadzi vakasiyana siyana vakagadzirirwa kupa izvi kururamisa, vachipokana kuti zvinonyadzisira zvakabatsira kukurudzira hutano hwevanhukadzi uye husina kudzivirirwa (Lubey, 2006. Zvinonyadzisira, kwavari, zvaive zvemidhiya zvakafanira kupemberera mune yayo chaiyo (Chancer, 2000).

Kunyangwe zvichinetsa kuziva uyo akahwina muhurukuro idzi, pesvedzero yevakadzi vechikadzi yakadzikira mumakore apfuura, kunyanya zvichitevera kufa kwaAndrea Dworkin (Boulton, 2008. Kunyangwe iwo maitiro akajeka echikadzi pane zvinonyadzisira ave kure nekunyangarika kubva pakudzidza kutaura (Bianchi, 2008), pane humbowo hwekuti hunhu hwevakadzi nezvekuona zvinonyadzisira hwatanga kutsamira munzira yakatetepa (Carroll et al., 2008).

Zvakanakira kuzvionera

Kunyangwe kutsvakisisa kwakawanda kwakatarisa nezvekuipa kwakashata, zvidzidzo zvishoma zvakarongedza izvo zvinobatsira zvekushandiswa kwezvinonyadzisira. Kuedza kwakanyanya kwakaitwa naMcKee, Albury, uye Lumby (2008), uyo akabvunza vanyori vezvinonyadzisira veAustralia izvo zvavainzwa kuti mhedzisiro yezvinonyadzisira yaive muhupenyu hwavo. Vazhinji vakataura kuti zvinonyadzisira zvine mhedzisiro, kusanganisira kuita kuti vashoma vadzvinyirirwa nezve bonde, zvichivaita kuti vafunge zvakanyanya nezve bonde, kuwedzera kushivirira kwevamwe vanhu zvepabonde, kupa mufaro, kupa ruzivo rwekudzidzisa, kuchengetedza kufarira zvepabonde muhukama hurefu, zvichivaita kunyatsoteerera zvishuwo zvepabonde zvemumwe wako, kubatsira vatengi kuwana kuzivikanwa uye / kana nharaunda, uye kuvabatsira kuti vataure kune vavanodanana navo nezvebonde. Aya mabhenefiti akaonekwa akasimbiswa mune yakakura Dutch sampu yevakuru vechidiki (Hald & Malamuth, 2008), uyo akataura kuti zvinonyadzisira zvaive zvakanyanya kunaka kupfuura zvinokanganisa hupenyu hwavo hwepabonde, maitiro avo pabonde, maitiro avo kune vakomana kana vasikana, uye muhupenyu hwavo kazhinji, kunyangwe mhedzisiro yacho yaive yakakura kune varume kupfuura yevakadzi. Zvakare, mune ongororo yevakadzi vane vavakaroora vaishandisa zvinonyadzisira, ruzhinji rwakafunga kuti kunwa kweumwe wavo kwakawedzera zvakasiyana pahupenyu hwavo hwepabonde (Mabhiriji et al., 2003. Muchidzidzo ichi, vamwe vakapindura vakasara vachishandisa zvinonyadzisira pamwe chete sevachati, izvo zvavakaona sechiitiko chakanaka.

Kunyangwe zviitiko zvakanaka zvevatengi zvisingafanirwe kuderedzwa, izvi zvekuzviona chete zvine mashoma. Iwo ma samples muzvidzidzo izvi haangomiriri huwandu hwevatengi vezvinonyadzisira. Vapinduri vakanyoresa kumagazini inoona zvinonyadzisira, semuenzaniso, vanofanira kuenda kune zvakasarudzika zvinozoita kuti zviratidzike mukuona zvinonyadzisira. 2013). Pamusoro pezvo, masampula evakuru vechidiki anogona kumiririra vatengi, sevakuru vakuru muhukama hwakazvipira, vanogona kunzwa zvakasiyana nezvezvinonyadzisira (Bergner & Bridges, 2002). Aya mabhenefiti anotsanangura chimiro chakanakirwa chekushandisa, ine zvinonyadzisira zvinoshandiswa zvakanyanya kune zvekudzidzisa kana zvehukama zvinangwa, izvo zvinogona kunge zvisiri izvo zvechiitiko (Cooper, Morahan ‐ Martin, Mathy, & Maheu, 2002).

Mukuwedzera, zvinonyadzisira zvinokuvadza zvinogona kunge zviri kunze kwekuziva kwevatengi (Hald & Malamuth, 2008). Kuisa pfungwa pamaonero ako kunogona kupa mufananidzo wakashata wezviitiko zvekuona zvinonyadzisira, iyo inosimbisa mabhenefiti nepo ichifukidza zvinogona kukuvadza. Iyi tsika inoratidzwa mukuona zvinonyadzisira kwakanyatsosimbiswa, kwechitatu - munhu maitiro - vanhu vanogarika nekuona zvinonyadzisira zvinokanganisa vamwe vatengi kupfuura zvavari kuzvibata ivo (Lo, Wei, & Wu, 2010).

Arousal uye dzidzo

Empirical humbowo hunotsigira kushandiswa kwezvinonyadzisira seyese rubatsiro rwepabonde uye mudzidzisi wezvebonde. Sezvo zvidzidzo zvekutanga zvekuona zvinonyadzisira zvakaguma, kutariswa kwezvinhu zvinoburitsa bonde kunogona kumutsa uye kazhinji kunofadza (US Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, 1972). Zvinonyadzisira zvinoshandiswa pakati pevakadzi zvakabatana nezviitiko zvakanaka nezvebonde (Rogala & Tydén, 2003), inogona kuwedzera kutaurirana pakati pevadyidzani maererano nekufungidzira kwepabonde uye zvishuwo (Daneback, Traeen, & Maansson, 2009), Uye inogona kuwedzera mahwindo ezvepabonde evakadzi (Weinberg, Williams, Kleiner, & Irizarry, 2010. Zvinonyadzisira zvakare zvinogona kuve nzira yekusunungurwa pabonde kana vakaroorana vasipo kana zvisipo (Hardy, 2004; Parvez, 2006. Panyaya yedzidzo, zvinonyadzisira inopa ruzivo nezvenzvimbo dzebonde uye maitiro (evarume kupfuura evakadzi; Donnelly, 1991), kunyangwe zvisina kujeka kana iyo dzidzo yakapihwa neinonyadzisira inobatsira zvechokwadi, sekuona zvinonyadzisira kunoita sekudzidzisa nedzimwe nzira, nekukurudzira kuita zvine njodzi pabonde (kureva., zhinji pabonde inoratidzwa mukuona zvinonyadzisira haina kudzivirirwa; Stein, Silvera, Hagerty, & Marmor, 2012), maitiro anobatsira pabonde (Peter & Valkenburg, 2006), nekubata chibharo ngano (Allen, Emmers, Gebhardt, & Giery, 1995).3

Zvidzidzo zvichiongorora ruzivo rwepabonde rwevanhu vanoita uye vasingadye zvinonyadzisa zvingabatsira zvirinani kuyera kukura uye kukosha kweiyo pornisheni mhedzisiro.

Inofungidzirwa cathartic maitiro

Vatsvagiri vakafungidzira kwenguva yakareba kuti zvinonyadzisira zvinogona kuita basa rekubatsira kusunungura kushushikana kwepabonde izvo zvingasimudzira utsinye kana kurwiswa (Wilson, 1971). Kunyangwe vaongorori vakaona kuti iyo cathartic hypothesis haigutsikane uye zvikuru haina kutsigirwa (Allen, D'Alessio, & Brezgel, 1995; Ferguson & Hartley, 2009,, taura ‐ danho re data kubva ku1998 kuenda ku2003, apo kuwanikwa kweInternet zvinonyadzisira kwawedzera zvakanyanya, kuratidza kuti huwandu hwekubatwa chibharo hwakadzikira zvakanyanya pakati pevanhurume vane makore 15-19 -ezera ringave rakaomerwa kuwana zvinonyadzisira pasina Internet (Kendall, 2006. Izvi zvakawanikwa zvinoratidza kuti zvinonyadzisira zvinogona kushanda senzira yekubatwa chibharo kwevachiri kuyaruka. Saizvozvo, kana uchiongorora uwandu hwevana vekushungurudza vana munzvimbo dzakavonekwa zviri pamutemo zvevana zvinonyadzisira kwenguva, kuderera kwemhoms kwakanyorwa panguva iyo zvinonyadzisira zvaivapo (Diamondi, 2009). Izvi zvidzidzo zvinopa humbowo hwepakutanga hwemamiriro ekuti zvinonyadzisira zvinoshandiswa zvinogona kuve nekathartic maitiro, zvirinani muhuwandu. Izvi zvakawanikwa zvinogona kusaturikira zvakanaka kune mumwe nhanho, zvisinei, sevaya vakawanikwa vaine mhosva yekuve nevana zvinonyadzisira vanowanzove nekushungurudza vana, zvirinani maererano neimwe ongororo (Bourke & Hernandez, 2009).

Yakashongedzerwa mabhenefiti ehukama

Izvi zvakanaka zvine zvirevo zvakakosha zvekugutsikana kwepabonde muhukama hwehukama. Zvidzidzo zvakaongorora kana kushandisa zvinonyadzisira kwakabatana nekuwedzera kugutsikana kwepabonde nekuwedzera zvepabonde dzakasiyana (Johnston, 2013; Štulhofer, Buško, & Schmidt, 2012. Kunyangwe izvi zvidzidzo zvichiongorora zvemunhu pane kugutsikana kwemaviri, zvavakawana zvinoratidza kuti izvi zvinogona kubatsira chaizvo.

Misiyano mhedzisiro

Pakutonga kukwezva kwevanodanana, isu tinowanzo taura kune yakajairwa standard, imwe inoziviswa nevamwe vanhu vatinosangana navo (Kenrick & Gutierres, 1980), pamwe nevezvenhau vatinoona. Vanhurume pavanoona mifananidzo yevakadzi vanoyevedza, vozotarisa kukwezva kwevamwe vavo, vanoona misiyano - vanoona vavakaroorana sevashoma kuenzaniswa nevanhurume vasina kuratidzwa nemifananidzo iyoyo (Kenrick, Gutierres, & Goldberg, 1989. Izvi zvakafanana zvinogona kushandawo kune mamwe mamiriro ehukama: "Vakasununguka, vane mweya vakasangana mune zvepabonde vanogadzira musiyano wakakura vachipesana nezvirambidzo, kuzvipira, uye mabasa anoenderana nemhuri uye hukama uye kuita kuti iwo ekupedzisira aoneke seanonyanya kudzora" (Mundorf et al., 2007, p. 85).

Zillmann naBryant (1988b) vakaedza iyi mhedzisiro nekuburitsa vanhu kumaawa e6 ezvisingaite zvehupombwe kwemavhiki matanhatu, kuyera kugutsikana nevavanodanana navo (kunyanya kufambidzana), maererano nekukwezva kwete chete asiwo rudo, kuda zvepabonde, uye kuita zvepabonde. Kuenzaniswa nemadhimoni, avo vakafumurwa vakaratidza kusagutsikana kushoma pane imwe yeaya matanho. Izvi zvakawanikwa zvinotsigirwa neakabatana data rekubatanidza zvinonyadzisira kudzikisa kugutsikana nehukama hwepedyo muhukama (Mabhiriji neMorokoff, 2011; Poulsen, Busby, & Galovan, 2013. Hupenyu chaihwo, zvinoita senge husingaenzanise zvakanaka nezvinonyadzisira.

Ukama dzimwe nzira

Panzvimbo pekuchinja maratidziro anoita vatengi hunhu nemaitiro evamwe vavo, zvinonyadzisira zvinogona kupa pfungwa yekuti vamwe kunze kwehukama vangangopa zvirinani zvepabonde nekugutsikana (Zillmann & Bryant, 1984). Sezvo dzimwe nzira dzinowedzera kufadza, kuzvipira kuhukama hwazvino hunowanika, sekuratidzwa kwaRusbult's (1980) Investment Model. Pfungwa iyi yakatsigirwa muzvikamu zviviri zvezvidzidzo. Kutanga, Lambert, Negash, Yetman, Olmstead, uye Fincham (2012) yakaratidza kuti yakawedzera kushandiswa kwekuona zvinonyadzisira (kuona zvinonyadzisira webhusaiti mumazuva apfuura e30) yakagadziriswa nekuzvipira kwakaderera kune iye zvino wekudanana naye, kuti kushandisa zvinonyadzisira kwakabatana nekuwedzeredza kuita zvepabonde nemumwe munhu wehukadzi pamusangano wepamhepo, uye izvo zvakadzora kuzvipira kuregererwa kusonganirana kwakanaka pakati pekushandisa zvinonyadzisira uye kusatendeka.4

Gwinn et al. (2013) zvakare yakawana kuti vanhu vakafungidzirwa nezvekuona zvinonyadzisira vakashuma yakakwirira ‐ mhando dzerudo dzimwe nzira dzekudzora uye kuti kushandisa zvinonyadzisira (mumazuva akapfuura 30) yakafanotaura extradyadic maitiro (semuenzaniso, kupfimbana, kutsvoda, kubiridzira) 12 mavhiki anotevera, nemafungiro akafungidzirwa mamwe maitiro kureverera kusonganirana uku. Kusevha zvinonyadzisira kunokonzeresa maitiro e extradyadic maitiro epfungwa dzehukama dzimwe nzira.

Kuwedzera kugamuchirwa kwekusavimbika

Nyanzvi dzakakurumidza kunongedza mukana wekuona zvinonyadzisira kuti uchinje "zvinyorwa zvepabonde" - tarisiro yedu yekuti kuita bonde (uye hukama hwepabonde kazhinji) kunofanirwa kuenderera sei (Berger, Simon, & Gagnon, 1973) -Uye uzive hukama hwehukama (semuenzaniso, kangani kuita bonde nemuromo kunofanira kuitika) uye hunhu (semuenzaniso, kuvimbika). Simba iri rakatanga kuratidzwa muchiedza chakanaka, paine zvinonyadzisira zvinogadzira magwaro anoshanda pabonde (Berger et al., 1973). Zvinogoneka, zvakadaro, nekuti zvinonyadzisira zvinoratidzira zvisingawanzo - uye kazhinji zvisina kutendeka - kusangana pabonde, iko kuburitswa kunogona kukurudzira gwaro rezvepabonde rinobvumidza, kuwedzera kugamuchirwa kwehunhu hwekunze (Braithwaite, Coulson, Keddington, & Fincham, 2014).

Iyo iripo data iri mukutsigira kwakasimba kwekusimbisa kwekuti vanhu vakafumurwa kuwanda hukuru hwezvisingaite zvehupombwe humbowo humbowo hwekugamuchirwa uye huwandu hwakawanda hwebonde rekunze (Zillmann & Bryant, 1988a) zvine chekuita nekutonga uye vanowanzo tenda kuti hupombwe ndehwomuzvarirwo uye kuti muchato haufarire. Zvakare, vanhurume vaiona bhaisikopo rezvinonyadzisira mukati megore rapfuura vaigona kunge vachigamuchira bonde rekunze, vaive nenhamba yakawedzera yevanobata navo mukati megore rapfuura, uye vaive nemikana yekuita hunhu hwepabonde hwakabhadharwa pane avo vasina ( Wright & Randall, 2012. Kusevenza zvinonyadzisira zvakare kufungidzira zvekusazvibata kuita zvepabonde (kusanganisira yekuita zvepabonde pabonde) 3 makore anotevera, pasina humbowo hwekudzoreredza causality (Wright, 2012).

Maonero evamwe vavo edambudziko rekushandisa

Zvisinei nemhedzisiro inowanzoitika yekushandisa zvinonyadzisira, zvinoita sezviri pachena kuti pane zviitiko umo zvinonyadzisira zvinoshandiswa zvinogona kuonekwa sekunetsa, kungave nemutengi kana nemumwe wemutengi. Vaya vanobatana navo kazhinji vakadzi vane hanya nekushandisa sechikamu chemhando yakakura yekuita kunge inomanikidza maitiro ehupombwe (Schneider, 2000). Nhoroondo dzakaburitswa nevakadzi ava dzinopa mufananidzo wezvinoitika kana zvinonyadzisira zvikava zvinonetsa (Bergner & Bridges, 2002; Schneider, 2000).

Schneider (2000), semuenzaniso, akaongorora nhaurwa dzevakadzi makumi mapfumbamwe nevatanhatu (nevarume vatatu) avo vakasangana nemhedzisiro yekusangana nehukama hwepabonde nemumwe wako. Vanhu ava vakashushikana zvakanyanya pamusoro pehunhu hwemumwe wavo, kunzwa kutengeswa, kusiiwa, kunyadziswa, kukuvadzwa uye kutsamwa. Ivo zvakare vakanzwa kupesana kwakakomba mhedzisiro, vachizvienzanisa ivo zvisina kunaka nevakadzi mune zvinonyadzisira uye vachinzwa vasingakwanise kukwikwidzana navo maererano nekuita bonde. Vanhu vakaedza kuripa nekuita bonde zvakanyanya nevavanodanana navo kazhinji vaisabudirira. Zvakare, vatori vechikamu kazhinji vaishaya chishuwo chekuita bonde nevavanodanana navo vavaifunga kuti vavatengesa, uye vavakaroorana navo vakabva vasiya bonde vachida kuona zvinonyadzisira. Vazhinji pakupedzisira vakaongorora zvakare hukama hwacho, vachitsvaga kupatsanurwa kana kurambana sezvo hukama hwavo hwakaramba huchiwedzera kuderera. Zvakawanikwa zvakafanana zvakawanikwa nevamwe vaongorori (semuenzaniso, Bergner & Mabhiriji, 2002). Nekudaro, chakakosha kuvhiringidzika mune izvi zvidzidzo kupokana kwekuona zvinonyadzisira kunoshandisa nehunhu uye hunhu hwekunyengera (Resch & Alderson, 2013. Varoorani vakapedza basa rakawanda vachihwanda nekureva nhema nezvezviitiko zvavo zvepamhepo, uye kusatendeseka kwakakonzera kukuvara uye kutengesa zvakawandisa kana kupfuura kwekushandisa zvinonyadzisira.

Kunyangwe idzi nhoroondo dzinogona kumutsa tsitsi, hadzitiudze kuti zviitiko zvakadaro zvakapararira zvakadii. Nekudaro, kumwe kuongorora (Bridges et al., 2003) vakawana kuti vashoma vevakadzi (30 pa100) vakashuma zvinonyadzisira zveumwe wavo zvinoshandisa sekushungurudza. Kushungurudzika kwavo kwakawedzera sekushandisa kwaiwedzera uye kwakanzwikwa zvakanyanya nevakadzi vakaroora nevakuru pane kufambidzana nevakadzi vadiki. Uku kutsvaga kunoratidza kuti zviitiko zvakataurwa naSchneider (2000), kunyangwe iri kure nekubatikana, ingave yakajairika kuti iwane hanya.

Kubatanidza kushandisa zvinonyadzisira uye kurambana

Dhata kubva kuGeneral Social Survey (GSS) inoratidza kuwirirana kusingagumi pakati pezvinonyadzisira kushandiswa (kuona vhidhiyo yezvinonyadzisira kana webhusaiti mumazuva makumi matatu apfuura) uye kurambana kwemakore ese pakati pa30 na1973, nehukama huchiwana simba nekufamba kwenguva (kureva, izvo avo vaidya zvinonyadzisira vaive, paavhareji pane iyo data yakatarwa, 2010% vangangove vakarambana kupfuura avo vasina, nemakore achangopfuura vachiratidza kushamwaridzana kwakasimba; Doran & Mutengo, 2014). Uye zvakare, kuongororwa kwenguva refu kwedunhu-dhata dhata pamusoro pemakumi matatu emakore (Shumway & Daines, 3) inoratidza kuwirirana kwakasimba kwakasarudzika pakati pekurambana nemitero yemubhadharo wemagazini anonyadzisira ezvinonyadzisira (r = .44), kunyangwe uchidzora pazvinhu zvakasiyana. Shumway naDaines (2011) vanofungidzira kuti 10% yedzese kurambana kunoitika muma1960s nema1970s inogona kunzi inoshandiswa nekuona zvinonyadzisira.

Kukanganiswa

Chinhu chinonyanya kunetsekana nevazhinji vanoongorora zvinonyadzisira chave chiri kubatana pakati pekuona zvinonyadzisira uye hunhu hwakaipisisa, kunetsekana kwakaratidzwa nekuwedzera kuri kuitika mukuratidzwa kwehasha mune zvinonyadzisira nekufamba kwenguva (Mabhiriji, Wosnitzer, Scharrer, Sun, & Liberman, 2010). Kunyangwe zviwanikwa zvichibatanidza zvinonyadzisira uye hukasha zvinogona kuoneka zvichipesana, nyaya inowirirana zvinoshamisa inobuda muchiedza chemeta-analytic data (Allen, D'Alessio, & Brezgel, 1995; Mundorf et al., 2007). Kuratidzira kune zvisina mhirizhonga zvefirimu mafirimu primes yakawedzera hukasha, kunyanya kana munhu anenge achinangwa ari murume mumwe chete wepabonde, asi chete kana vatori vechikamu vakatsamwiswa (semuenzaniso, Donnerstein & Hallam, 1978. Izvi zvinoratidza kuti kuburitswa kunoita kuti kuve nekutsamwa chete kana vatori vechikamu vanogona kuvhiringidza kuita bonde nekutsamwa, kuwirirana neyekuwedzeredza hyp kutamisa pfungwa.5

Kuratidzira kune zvechisimba zvinonyadzisira zvave zvichiratidzwa kuti zviitise hukasha Meta - ongororo inoratidza yakasimba mhedzisiro yekuratidzwa kune zvechisimba zvinonyadzisira zvine chekuita nekusaona zvinonyadzisira (Allen, D'Alessio, & Brezgel, 1995), kunyangwe hazvo mhedzisiro yacho ichikwiridzirwa zvakanyanya nehunhu hwemunhu, ichifambisa hutsinye chete kana varume vachitsamwiswa kurwisa vakadzi (semuenzaniso, Donnerstein, 1980a. Mhirizhonga yebonde inoita seinokurudzira kushungurudzika kusingaonekwe nedzimwe nzira dzechisimba, iyo inoratidza kuti zvepabonde nemhirizhonga zvinosanganisika munzira dzakatendana kuti dziitise kurwiswa kwevanhukadzi (Donnerstein, 1983. Iyi misiyano yakatungamira vaongorori kure nehunyanzvi hwekushandura pfungwa, vachitsanangura zvinonyadzisira nezvepfungwa dzekudzidza munharaunda dzakaiswa mberi naBandura nevamwe vanoita zvekutsvaga maitiro (Bandura, 2011; Bandura & McClelland, 1977; Mundorf et al., 2007).6Mhedzisiro ine chekuita nehasha inofanirwa kududzirwa nehungwaru. Kunyangwe kana zviwanikwa kubva murabhoritari zvikashandiswa kune iyo chaiyo nyika, hazvizivikanwe kuti yakareba sei mhedzisiro yekuona zvinonyadzisira inopera (yakareba kupfuura maminetsi makumi maviri; Zillmann, Hoyt, & Zuva, 1974; isingasviki vhiki; Malamuth & Ceniti, 1986), uye hutsinye hunokonzeresa hwekuvhenekwa kwezvinhu zvinonyadzisira hauna kusimba, kunyanya kune zvinonyadzisira (r = <.2; Allen, D'Alessio, & Brezgel, 1995. Kupiwa dzakadaro mashoma maitiro masayizi, zvingave zvine musoro kuti titarise zvinhu zvakavanzika pane utsinye hunogona kuwanikwa muhukama hwerudo, uko kunetsana pakati pevakaroorana kungave kwakajairika (Kusimba, 2001). Vanhu havafanirwe kuita nehasha dzakawandisa panyama nekuda kwekuita kwakadai kuti vakanganise hukama hwavo hwepedyo - vanogona kupindura nekutsamwa kana kutsiva chirevo, kutuka, kana kusagadzikana (Metts & Cupach, 2007. Kuona zvinonyadzisira kunogona kuita kuti vatengi vasaite zvishoma, vadzivirire zvishoma, kana kuti vatsiva kana vakatsamwiswa nemudiwa, nokudaro vachiwedzera kusabatana. Kutsvaga munguva yemberi kunogona kuongorora mukana uyu, sezvo izvi zvingave zvakakwana kuchinjisa nzira yehukama hwehukama, zvichiita kuti hukama hwakadaro huve husina kugadzikana uye husina kugutsa (Rusbult, 1986).

Kushungurudzwa kwepabonde uye kumanikidzwa kwepabonde

Kunyangwe kubatana pakati pekuratidzwa kwekuona zvinonyadzisira uye chisimba zvichitsigirwa chaizvo, zvirinani mukati mevashandi, kubatana pakati pekushandiswa kwezvinonyadzisira uye kurohwa kwepabonde kwakanyanya kuyenzana. Yakakura ‐ chiyero che data inoratidza kuti kuiswa pamutemo kwezvinonyadzisira hakuwedzere kuitika kwekubatwa chibharo (Wongsurawat, 2006), asi wega-chikamu chinoongorora chinopa imwe nhoroondo, nekushandisa zvechisimba (asi kwete zvechisimba) zvinonyadzisira zvine chekuita neyakawedzera yakatarwa mikana yekubatwa chibharo uye kushandiswa kwesimba kuwana bonde (Demaré, Miromo, & Briere, 1993. Kusevenzeswa zvakare kwakabatanidzwazve nezvakayeukwa zviito zvekumanikidzira kuita zvepabonde (Boeringer, 1994), Uye vanhu vakafumurwa kune zvisina mhirizhonga asi zvinonyadzisa murabhorari vakashumawo mukana wakakura wekubatwa chibharo kupfuura avo vasina kufumurwa (Tarisa & Guloien, 1989). Vanhurume vakafumurwa kuratidzwa kwemufirimu wekubatwa chibharo vakafunga kuti mukadzi akabatwa ndiye ainyanya kukoshesa zvakaitika, kunyangwe chete kana vhidhiyo yacho yapera neyegasm yemukadzi (zvine chekuita nemhirizhonga; Donnerstein & Berkowitz, 1981), uye meta ‐ inoongorora data rekuyera uye yekuyedza yakawana kuti zvese zvechisimba uye zvisina hunhu zvinonyadzisira zvinowedzera kugumisa kwedzidziso dzenhema (Allen, Emmers, et al., 1995; Mundorf et al., 2007).

Zvinonyadzisira, mune ino mamiriro, zvinoita kunge zvinoratidzira kunakidzwa kwevakadzi uye kurudziro yekumanikidza kuita zvepabonde, asi maitiro aya haana kuchinjika zvisingachinjiki nekuratidzwa kune zvinonyadzisira. Mhedzisiro yakadaro inonyangarika kana kuratidzwa kwekuona zvinonyadzisira kuchiperekedzwa nemishumo, prebriefings, kana zvimwe zvekudzidzisa zvinodzinga kubatwa chibharo (Tarisa & Malamuth, 1984; Donnerstein & Berkowitz, 1981), chirevo chinotsigirwa nemeta ‐ analytic data (Mundorf et al., 2007. Zviwanikwa zvakadaro zvinopa tariro yekuti mhedzisiro inogona kudzora kana kubviswa kuburikidza nekuita zvepabonde kuitisa dzidzo.

Kukakavadzana kuri kuenderera pakati pezvikamu zvakaunganidzwa uye zveumwe neumwe zvakawanikwa zvinoramba zviri chipingamupinyi chikuru mukubatana pakati pezvinonyadzisira nekubata chibharo. Ongororo chete inoongorora ese ari maviri nhanho panguva imwe chete - pamwe kuburikidza nekushandisa multilevel linear modelling (MLM; Snijders & Bosker, 2011) -Aizokwanisa kuyananisa zvechokwadi izvi zvakasiyana. Vamwe vaongorori, zvisinei, vanoshandisa kongiresi yemhando yekugadzirisa kusawirirana uku, izvo zvinoratidza kuti kutaura kwekushungurudzwa pabonde kunoda kusangana kwezvakakonzera zvakasiyana. Kana zvinonyadzisira zviri pakati pezvakadai, isu tinofanirwa kuona mhedzisiro kune avo vatove nenjodzi yekuita zvehasha, uye izvi ndizvo chaizvo zvakawanikwa nevamwe (semuenzaniso, Malamuth & Huppin, 2005). Njodzi yekuita zvekusvirana pabonde inowanzove yakaderera zvisinei nekushandisa zvinonyadzisira, kunze kweavo vane njodzi yekuita zvechisimba zvakakwirira - vanonyorera zvinonyadzisira vane njodzi yakawedzera pamusoro pevasinganyore pakati pevaya vane hunyanzvi hwehunhu uye hupombwe, izvo zviri zviviri fungidziro yekuita zvechisimba (Malamuth & Huppin, 2005).

Izvi zvakawanikwa maererano nekumanikidzwa pabonde, kunyange zvakaenzana, zvine zvazvinoreva mukukanganisa kwemhuri. Kana paine kuwirirana pakati pezvinonyadzisira zvinoshandiswa uye kushungurudzwa pabonde kazhinji, ipapo panogona kunge paine hukama kusvika nhasi kana kubata chibharo muwanano (kuitira hurukuro yezuva uye kubata chibharo, ona Clinton ‐ Sherrod & Walters, 2011), iyo isinganyanye kukuvadza uye inogona kunge yakajairika kupfuura kubatwa chibharo (Bergen, 1996), Uye zvakare inogona kuzokodzera seyakaipa kudyidzana kudyidzana. Kunyangwe idiki dhata ichitaura yakanangana nemhedzisiro yezvinonyadzisira pazuva kana kubatwa chibharo muwanano, ongororo dzakasiyana dzakacherekedza kuti varume avo vane tsika yekumanikidza madzimai avo kuita zvepabonde vanowanzoedza kuitisa zvinyadzo (semuenzaniso, Finkelhor & Yllo, 1983; Moreau, Boucher, Hebert, & Lemelin, 2015. Kuenderera mberi nekutsvaga mune ino nzvimbo kungava kwekugamuchirwa kuwedzera kune mabhuku aripo.

Mafungiro ebonde uye maitiro

Kumwe kutsvagurudza kwekuyedza kwakabatanidza zvinonyadzisira nemaitiro epabonde uye maitiro. Semuenzaniso, vaongorori vakafunga kuti zvinonyadzisira zvaizokurudzira hunhu hwepabonde kuburikidza nekuzvikurudzira kuita zvepabonde (McKenzie ‐ Mohr & Zanna, 1990). Vatori vechikamu vechirume vakaona zvimwe zvisina mhirizhonga kana vhidhiyo yekusarerekera vhidhiyo uye vakabva vabvunzurudzwa nemukadzi musangano. Varume vepabonde - vanyori vakaratidzirwa kune zvinonyadzisira vaive nekurangarira kukuru kweye confederate chimiro chemuviri uye zvishoma kurangarira kwehunyanzvi hwehungwaru. Iye mukadzi anobvunzurudza, asingaoni kune yekuyedza mamiriro, akayera avo vakaoneswa kune zvinonyadzisira sevanonyanya kukurudzira pabonde pane avo vanoratidzwa kune vasina kwavakarerekera vhidhiyo. Kudzokorora kwepfungwa kwakatungamira kumhedzisiro yakafanana (Jansma, Linz, Mulac, & Imrich, 1997),7

uye yakaratidza mhedzisiro chete neinosvibisa zvinonyadzisira pane kusarudzika erotica.Izi miedzo yekuedzesera inotsigirwa nezvidzidzo pane zvinonyadzisira uye hunhu hwepabonde. Kunakidzwa nekuona zvinonyadzisira kwakabatana nekufunga kwevakadzi mune zvepabonde (Burns, 2001), pamwe nematanho ezvakanaka (Garos, Beggan, Kluck, & Easton, 2004) uye neruvengo (Hald, Malamuth, & Lange, 2013) sexism. Huvengo hwepombwe hutsinye hunokwidzirwazve nekuwonekera kuratidza kwounhu hwekuita zvinonyadzisira (semuenzaniso, Hald et al., 2013. Chekupedzisira, zvidzidzo zvakabatanidza kushandisa zvinonyadzisira kune kushoma kuzvienzanisa maitiro (maBurns, 2001; Hald et al., 2013) -Kunyange vamwe vasingawani hukama pakati pekushandisa zvinonyadzisira nemafungire akadaro (semuenzaniso, Bharaki & Fisher, 1997) -Iine data rerefu rinoratidza kuti zvinonyadzisira zvinoshandisa kufungidzira kuwedzera kupokana nekusimbisa kwevakadzi, pasina humbowo hwezvakakonzera kukanganisa (Wright & Funk, 2013). Pfungwa huru yezvidzidzo iri pamasangano aya kudzidza munharaunda. Sevatengi vachitarisa vakadzi vachibatwa sezvinhu zvepabonde, vanouya voita mafungire nemaitiro anoratidza kushorwa pabonde (McKenzie-Mohr & Zanna, 1993).

Bonde rinogona kukonzera masimba ehukama hwerudo. Kusevenza zvinonyadzisira kunogona kutungamira varume kuisa kukosha kwakanyanya pamusoro pehunhu hwevatezvara vavo (izvo zvinoshatisa kazhinji kupfuura nguva) pane hunhu hwavo hwehungwaru, izvo zvinogona kukonzera kusagutsikana kukuru nehukama nekufamba kwenguva. Hupombwe hunhu hwekuita zvepabonde hunogona zvakare kukurudzira kuyedza kumanikidza kudzora vadikani (izvo zvakabatana nemhombwe yepedyo yemurume; Whitaker, 2013), nokudaro kupa imwe nzira yekuona zvinonyadzisira kunogona kuwedzera kusabatana kwevatano.