I-Social Neuroscience Perspective kwi-Ingozi ye-Adolescent-Taking (2008)

Ukuvuselelwa kweNkqubo yeDopaminergic xa ufikisa

Utshintsho olubalulekileyo kuphuhliso lwenkqubo ye-dopaminergic yenzeka ngexesha lokufikisa (Iigumbi et al., 2003; I-Spear, 2000). Ukunikezelwa kwindima ebaluleke kakhulu yomsebenzi we-dopaminergic kulawulo olusebenzayo nolushukumisayo, olu tshintsho lunokubeka ikhondo kuphuhliso lwentlalo noluntu kwishumi elivisayo, kuba ukuqhubekiswa kolwazi loluntu kunye nolweemvakalelo kuxhomekeke kuthungelwano olusisiseko lweenkqubo ezinokubangela kunye nezinokukhuthaza. Iimpawu eziphambili zenethiwekhi zenza i-amygdala, i-nucleus accumbens, i-orbitofrontal cortex, i-medial preortal ye-cortex, kunye ne-temporal ye-temporal yesikhashana (UNelson et al., 2005). Le mimandla ichukunyiswe kwimiba eyahlukeneyo yokuqhubekeka kwezoluntu, kubandakanywa ukwamkelwa kwesimo esifanelekileyo sentlalo (umz. Ubuso, IHoffman kunye neHaxby, 2000; intshukumo yendalo, UHeberlein et al., 2004), izigwebo zentlalontle (uvavanyo lwabanye, I-Ochsner, et al., 2002; Ukugweba umtsalane, I-Aharon, et al., 2001; Ukuvavanya ubuhlanga, Iiphelps et al., 2000; Ukuvavanya iinjongo zabanye, Galgalher, 2000; I-Baron-Cohen et al., 1999), ukuqiqa nabantu (Ukuhlawula et al., 2002), kunye nezinye izinto ezininzi zomsebenzi wokuhlaliswa kwentlalo (ukuphononongwa kwakhona, bona I-Adolphs, 2003). Ngokubalulekileyo, kulutsha olufikisayo imimandla esebenzayo ngexesha lokuchatshazelwa kokuthontelana kwintlalo encinci ngokuncomekayo nemimandla ikwaboniswa kukuthathela ingqalelo umahluko kubungakanani bomvuzo, onjenge-ventral striatum kunye neendawo zangaphambi kwembali (cf. UGalvan et al., 2005; Knutson et al., 2000; Ngamana et al., 2004). Ewe, uphononongo lwakutsha nje lwishumi elivisayo oluthathe inxaxheba kwisenzo apho ukwamkelwa koontanga kunye nokwaliwa kuye kwenziwa ngokuziqhelanisa (UNelson et al., 2007) yatyhila ukusebenza ngakumbi xa izifundo zibonakalisiwe kukwamkelwa kontanga, malunga nokuchithwa, ngaphakathi kwengingqi zengqondo ezixhonywe kwindawo yokuvuzwa kwemivuzo (okt indawo yecala lokungena, i-amygdala eyandisiweyo, kunye ne-porral pallidum). Ngenxa yokuba le mimandla iye yanyanzeliswa kwizifundo ezininzi zokuchaphazela okunxulumene nomvuzo (cf., EBerridge, 2003; Ikemoto & Isilumko, 2004; IWaraczynski, 2006), ezi zinto zifunyanisiweyo zibonisa ukuba, ubuncinci kwishumi elivisayo, ukwamkelwa kwezentlalo ngoontanga kunokuba kusetyenzwa ngeendlela ezifanayo nezinye iintlobo zemivuzo, kubandakanywa nemivuzo elungileyo (UNelson et al., 2007). Njengoko ndicacisa kamva, oku kudibana phakathi kwemijikelezo ye-neural ehambelana nolungelelwaniso lolwazi loluntu kunye nokulungiswa kwembuyekezo kunceda ukucacisa ukuba kutheni kuthatha umngcipheko wokuthatha umngcipheko kulutsha okwenzeka kwiimeko zontanga.

Ukulungiswa kwakhona kwenkqubo ye-dopaminergic ngaphakathi kothungelwano lwentlalo kubandakanya ubume bokuqala bokunyuka emva koko, ukuqala nge-9 okanye i-10 yeminyaka yobudala, ukuncitshiswa okulandelayo koxinano lwe-dopamine receptor kwi-striatum kunye ne-preortalal cortex, inguquko leyo ubukhulu becala buchaziwe phakathi kwamadoda kunabafazi (ubuncinci kwiintonga) (ISisk kunye neFoster, ngo-2004; ISisk kunye neZehr, 2005; Teicher, Andersen, & Hostetter, Omnci., 1995). Ngokubalulekileyo, nangona kunjalo, ubukhulu kunye nexesha lokunyuka kunye nokuhla kwe-recopors ze-dopamine zahlukile phakathi kwale mimandla ye-cortical kunye ne-subcortical; kukho intelekelelo yokuba lutshintsho kwi on Ukuxinana kwezixhobo ezamkela imidumba (dopamine receptors) kwezi ndawo zimbini zenza utshintsho kwimveliso yokufumana umvuzo kwilungelo lokufikisa. Ngenxa yoku kulungiswa kwakhona, imisebenzi ye-dopaminergic kwi-cortex yangaphambi kokunyuka inyuka kakhulu kwinqanaba lokufikisa kwaye iphezulu ngeli xesha kunangaphambili okanye emva. Ngenxa yokuba i-dopamine idlala indima ebaluleke kakhulu kumjikelezo womvuzo wobuchopho, ukwanda, ukuncitshiswa, kunye nokusasazwa ngokutsha kwengcinezelo ye-dopamine receptor ngokufikisa, ngakumbi kuqikelelo olusuka kwinkqubo ye-limbic ukuya kwindawo yangaphambili, kunokuba neempembelelo ezibalulekileyo ekufuneni uvakalelo.

Iimpawu ezininzi zovavanyo malunga neziphumo zolu tshintsho kwimisebenzi ye-neural enikiweyo. Olunye uhanahaniso kukuba ukungalingani okwethutyana kwee-dopamine receptors kwi-preortal cortex ehambelana nes striatum kudala "sisifo sokunqongophala komvuzo," ukuvelisa isimilo phakathi kolutsha oluncinci olungafaniyo nolwabonwa phakathi kwabantu abaneentlobo ezithile zentsilelo ye-dopamine. Abantu abanale sifo banikwe ingxelo yokuba "bafune kungekuphela nje iziyobisi kodwa kunye nobunewunewu bendalo kunye noluvo njengohlobo lokuziphatha ngendlela yokunqongophala komvuzo" (UGardner, 1999, icatshulwe kwi I-Spear, 2002, iphe. 82). Ukuba inkqubo efanayo yenzeka xa ufikisa, singalindela ukubona ukunyuka kokuhamba (inqanaba lokuba ulutsha luqwalasele imbuyekezo kwaye luqwalasele iyantlukwano kwimivuzo) nasekukhangeleni umvuzo (indlela abafuna ukufumana ngayo umvuzo). Njengo-Spear ubhala:

[A] i-dolescents inokufumana ngokubanzi impembelelo elungileyo ukusuka kwisisusa esinexabiso eliphantsi lesikhuthazo, kwaye inokulandela amandla okuqinisa okonyusa ngokwanda komngcipheko wokuthathwa / ngokufuna okutsha nangokuzibandakanya kwihambo ephambuka efana nokuthatha iziyobisi. Isiphakamiso ke sokuba ulutsha lubonakalise isifo esine-mini-'reward defence syndrome 'efanayo, nangona zihlala zihleli kwaye zinobuncinci bokuya kwinqanaba, ukuba u-hypothesized unxulunyaniswe nabantu abadala [dopamine] hypofunctioning inomvury circry…. Ewe, abakwishumi elivisayo babonakala bebonisa iimpawu zokufumana ixabiso elincinci lokungabi namdla kwizinto ezahluka-hlukeneyo zezinto ezinokubakho kubantu abakubudala obuthile, mhlawumbi ezikhokelela ekubeni bafune amandla okomeleza okwethutyana ngokulandela ubudlelwane obutsha ekuhlaleni kunye nokuzibandakanya ekuthatheni umngcipheko okanye ngokuziphatha okutsha. Ezo mpawu ziqhelekileyo zokufikisa kusenokwenzeka ukuba zaziguquguquka ngokwendalo ukunceda abantwana abakwishumi elivisayo basasazeke kwindawo yendalo kunye nokuthetha-thethana ngempumelelo kwinguqu yophuhliso ukusuka kukuxhomekeka kwinkululeko. Kwindlela yokufikisa komntu, le minikelo inokubonakaliswa, nangona kunjalo, ekusebenziseni utywala nasekusetyenzisweni kweziyobisi, kunye nezinye iindlela zokuziphatha eziyingxaki (2000, iphe. 446-447).

Uluvo lokuba ulutsha luhlaselwa sisifo “sokushokoxeka komvuzo,” nangona inomdla ngokwentelekiso, lujongelwa phantsi kwizifundo ezininzi ezibonisa umsebenzi ophakamileyo kwimimandla ebekekileyo, ngakumbi amaqonga, ekuphenduleni kumvuzo ngexesha lokufikisa (U-Ernst et al., 2005; UGalvan et al., 2006). Enye iakhawunti kukuba ukwanda kokufuna uvakalelo kwishumi elivisayo akubangelwa kukungasebenzi kakuhle kwe-dopamine kodwa ilahleko yethutyana "yokufumana amandla" okuhambelana nokunyamalala kwe-dopamine autoreceptors kwikhonkco langaphambili eliphambili elisebenza umsebenzi olungileyo wokuphendula ngendlela engeyiyo ngexesha ebuntwaneni (Dumont et al., 2004, icatshulwe kwi U-Ernst & Spear, ngokushicilelwa). Ukuphulukana namandla okugcina amandla, okukhokelela ekunciphiseni kolawulo lokuthintela ukukhutshwa kwe-dopamine, kuya kukhokelela kumanqanaba aphezulu okujikeleza kwe-dopamine kwimimandla engaphambi kokuphendula kumanqanaba afanayo omvuzo ngexesha lokufikisa kunokuba kunokuba kunjalo ebuntwaneni okanye ebudaleni. Ke, ukwanda kokufuna iimvakalelo okubonwayo ngexesha lokufikisa ngekhe kube sisiphumo, njengoko bekucingelwe, ukwehla "kwimbuyekezo" yesikhuthazo esinomvuzo esiqhubela abantu ukuba bafune amanqanaba aphezulu naphezulu omvuzo (njengoko kunokuxelwa kwangaphambili ukuba abakwishumi elivisayo babenobunzima bokufumana "ukusilela kwembuyekezo yesifo"), kodwa ukonyuka kovakalelo kunye nokusebenza kwenkqubo ye-dopaminergic, ethi, ithiyori, inokubangela ukuvuseleleka okunokubangela amava anomvuzo kwaye ngokwandisa amandla omvuzo. Le akhawunti iyahambelana nokujongwa kokunyuka kwe-dopaminergic kwi-cortex yangaphambili ngexesha lokufikisa (I-Rosenberg kunye ne-Lewis, 1995), ngaphandle kokuncitshiswa koxinano lwe-dopamine receptor.

Iinkqubo zeSteroid-ezimeleyo kunye neeSteroid-zokuxhomekeka

Ndiqaphele ngaphambili ukuba kuyinto eqhelekileyo ukubiza olu tshintsho lu dopaminergic-Mediated kwi-salience yomvuzo kunye nokufuna-umvuzo kwimpembelelo yehomoni ye-pubertal kwingqondo, uphawu endalwenza ngokwam kwimibhalo yangaphambili ngomxholo (umz. I-Steinberg, i-2004). Nangona oku kulungiswa kwakhona kuyenzeka ngokufikisa, nangona kunjalo, ayicacanga into yokuba ibangelwa ngokuthe ngqo yiyo. Izilwanyana ezithe i-gonads zazo zisuswe ngaphambi kwexesha (kwaye ngenxa yoko azibonanga ukunyuka kwamahashe esondo anxulunyaniswa ne-pubertal matter) zibonisa iipateni ezifanayo ze-dopamine receptor proliferation kunye nokuthena njengezilwanyana ezingakhange zenziwe gonadectomised (UAndersen, uThompson, uKrenzel, kunye noTeicher, 2002). Ke ngoko kubalulekile ukwahlula phakathi kokufikisa (inkqubo ekhokelela ekukhulelweni kokuzala) kunye nokufikisa (indlela yokuziphatha, eyengqondo, nenguquko kwimpilo yexesha) ezingafaniyo, nokuba kukucaba okanye ngokwasemzimbeni. Njengokucacisa kukaSisk noFoster, "ukukhula kwengqondo ye-gonadal kunye nokuvuthwa kokuziphatha ziinkqubo ezimbini ezahlukeneyo eziqhutywa yingqondo kunye neendlela ezahlukeneyo zexesha kunye neendlela ze-neurobiological, kodwa zidityaniswa ngokusondeleyo phakathi konxibelelwano phakathi kwenkqubo ye-neva kunye ne-gonadal steroid hormones" (ISisk kunye neFoster, ngo-2004, iphe. 1040). Ke ngoko, kunokunyuswa okuqhutywa sisimo sokukhula komzimba kwinqanaba lokufikisa nelokufumana umvuzo kwinqanaba lokufikisa elinesiseko esomeleleyo sebhayoloji, nto leyo ehambelana nokufikisa, kodwa loo nto inokubangelwa kuphela lutshintsho kwiihomoni ze-gonadal ebusheni.

Ngapha koko, iinguqu ezininzi zokuziphatha ezenzeka xa umntu efikisa (kwaye ngamanye amaxesha zichazwe ngendlela engalunganga xa efikisa) zilungiswe kwangaphambili yiwotshi yebhayiloji enamaxesha ayo ebenza bahlangane, kodwa bengazimeli, kwiinguqu kwiihormone zesini zesidanga. Ngokuhambelana, ezinye iinguqu ekusebenzeni kwe-neurobiological yolutsha kunye nokuziphatha kwindlela yokufikisa kukuxhomekeka kwi-steroid, abanye baxhomekeka kwiseli, kwaye abanye bayimveliso yonxibelelwano phakathi kwezi zimbini (apho iinkqubo ezizimeleyo ze-steroid zichaphazela ukubandakanyeka kwabaxhomekekileyo be-steroid) (ISisk kunye neFoster, ngo-2004). Ngaphaya koko, kudidi lweenguqu ezixhomekeke ku-steroid yilezo zisiphumo seempembelelo zehomoni kwintlangano yobuchopho ngexesha laphambi nangokwexesha lobuhlungu, ezibeka utshintsho olungaziphathi kakuhle ekuziphatheni olungazibonakalisi kude kube sekufeni (kubhekiswa njengefuthe lombutho. iihomoni zesondo); Utshintsho olusisiphumo esithe ngqo seempembelelo zehomoni ekukhuleni (kokubini kwintlangano yengqondo nasekusebenzeni kwengqondo nokuziphatha, ezokugqibela ekubhekiswa kuzo njengeziphumo) kunye notshintsho olusisiphumo sokunxibelelana phakathi kwefuthe lombutho kunye nokusebenza. Nokuba utshintsho kwiindlela zokuziphatha ngokwesondo, umzekelo, esiqhele ukuzidibanisa neenguqu zehomoni zokufikisa, zilawulwa ngumdibaniso wenkqubo yokuziqhelanisa, kunye neenkqubo ezizimeleyo ze-steroid. Okwangoku, indlela utshintsho olusebenza ngayo kwi-dopaminergic esebenzayo xa ufikisa (1) iseli-ezimeleyo, (i-2) ngenxa yemiphumela yokuchaphazeleka kwi-sexids zesondo (nokuba kukwangoku ebomini okanye ngexesha lokufikisa, elinokwakha okanye likhulise iimpembelelo zentlangano yakuqala), (3) ngenxa yefuthe lokusebenzisa kwe-sexids sexesheni xa ufikisa, okanye ngakumbi, (4) ngenxa yomxube othile walezi zinto awuzange umiselwe. Kusenokwenzeka ukuba, umzekelo, ukuba ulwakhiwo ngokutsha lwenkqubo ye-dopaminergic ayiphenjelelwa yi-gonadal steroids xa ufikisa kodwa ukusebenza kwayo (ICameron, 2004; ISisk kunye neZehr, 2005).

Kukwakhona nesizathu sokuba uvakalelo lokuziva ngathi ubukho befuthe lokuchaphazeleka kweempawu zokuphazamiseka kwamahashe kungaphumeki nobudala (jonga ISchulz kunye neSisk, ngo-2006), ephakamisa ukuba impembelelo yehomoni ye-pubertal ekufuneni umvuzo inokuba namandla phakathi kwabakhulayo kunangexesha okanye abakhule kade. Abavuseleli abasaqalayo basenokuba semngciphekweni omkhulu wokuthatha umngcipheko ngenxa yokuba kukho umsantsa okwethutyana phakathi kotshintsho kwinkqubo yedopaminergic kunye nokuvuthwa ngokupheleleyo kwenkqubo yokulawula ingqondo. Ngenxa yokuba la mahluko ungokwebhayiloji, singalindela ukubona amazinga aphezulu okuthatha ingozi phakathi kokufikisa kwinqanaba lokufikisa kunakwabalingane abakwiminyaka efanayo (kwakhona, bephikisana neakhawunti ebambekayo yokungazihloneli komntu okwishumi elivisayo, kuba akukho mahluko mkhulu ekusebenzeni kwengqondo phakathi kwabakhula ngokwasemzimbeni nangaphambi kwexesha), kunye nokwehla kwixesha lembali kwiminyaka yovavanyo lokuqala ngokuziphatha okuyingozi, ngenxa yendlela yokuziphatha yehlabathi ukuya ekuqaleni kobudala bokufikisa. (Umndilili wexesha lokuya esikhathini kumazwe ahambele phambili kwezorhwebo lehlile malunga ne-3 ukuya kwiinyanga ze-4 kwishumi leminyaka ngexesha lesigaba sokuqala se-20^th yenkulungwane kwaye yaqhubeka ukwehla phakathi kwee1960 kunye nee1990s, malunga neenyanga ze2½ zizonke [bona I-Steinberg, i-2008]). Kukho ubungqina obucacileyo kuzo zombini ezi zinto ziqikelelweyo: Amakhwenkwe namantombazana akhule kwangoko axela amanqanaba aphezulu otywala kunye nokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi, ubutsotsi, kunye nengxaki yokuziphatha, ipateni ebonwa kwiinkcubeko ezahlukeneyo nakuzo zonke izizwe ezahlukeneyo zaseMelika (United States (ICollins kunye neSteinberg, 2006; UDeardorff, uGonzales, uChristopher, uRoosa, kunye neMillsap, 2005; I-Steinberg, i-2008), kunye nobudala bokuvavanywa kotywala, icuba, kunye neziyobisi ezingekho mthethweni (kunye nobudala bokuphazamiseka kwezesondo) ngokucacileyo iye yehla ngokuhamba kwexesha (UJohnson kunye noGerstein, ngo-1998), ehambelana nokwehla kwembali kwiminyaka yobudala bokuqalisa.

Ukubuzwa kwabantwana abasebatsha ukuba baFune kunye nokuziguqula

Nangona utshintsho lolwakhiwo kwinkqubo dopaminergic eyenzeka ngexesha lokufikisa isenokungabi ngqo ngqo ngenxa yefuthe lempembelelo yehypertal mahormone, nangona kunjalo yenza umbono ofanelekileyo wokuvela kwemvelo ukuba ezinye zeendlela zokuziphatha, ezinjengokufuna imvakalelo, zenzeka ngexesha lokufikisa, ngakumbi phakathi kwamadoda (phakathi kokuphinda kulungiswe i-dopaminergic), njengoko kuchaziwe ngaphambili) (jonga kwakhona I-Spear, 2000). Ukufuna-isiphelo, kuba kubandakanya ukungena kumanzi angafakwanga, kuthwala umngcipheko othile, kodwa ukuthatha loo mngcipheko kunokuba yimfuneko ukuze uphile kwaye uququzelele ukuzala kwakhona. Njengoko mna noBelsky siye sabhala kwenye indawo, "Ukuvuma ukuthatha umngcipheko, nokuba sengozini yobomi, kusenokuba kungangqineka kuluncedo kookhokho bethu xa ukwala ukungena emngciphekweni kuyingozi kakhulu ukusinda okanye ukuzala. Nangona kunjalo i-chances ehamba nge-savannah etshayo okanye ukuzama ukuwela umlambo odumbileyo isenokuba ibiyinto enjalo, ukungakwenzi oko kunokuba yingozi kakhulu "(I-Steinberg kunye neBelsky, ngo-1996, iphe. 96). Ukuya kuthi ga kwinqanaba lokuba abantu bathambekele ekuthatheni umngcipheko lube luncedo olwahlukileyo xa kufikwa ekusindeni nasekuveliseni inzala eziya kuthi ngokwayo isinde kwaye izale kwakhona kwizizukulwana ezizayo, ukukhethwa kwendalo kuya kuthanda ukugcinwa kokuthambekela kokuziphatha okungenani okuthatha umngcipheko ngexesha lokufikisa, xa ukuzala ngokwesondo kuqala.

Ukongeza ekukhuthazeni ukusinda kwiimeko eziba semngciphekweni, ukuthatha umngcipheko kungabonakalisa izibonelelo, ngakumbi emadodeni, ngokubonisa ngomboniso ngenkqubo ebizwa ngokuba “kukukhetha ngokwesondo” (Idayimani, i-1992). Ngokuphathelele kwimiboniso eboniswayo, ukulungela ukuthatha umngcipheko kunokuba yinto yeqhinga lokufezekisa kunye nokugcina ubukhosi kwimigangatho yentlalo. Ezo ndlela zokufumana inqanaba lesimo kunye nokugcinwa zinokuthi zikhethwe ngenxa yokuba zinegalelo ekuzifumaneleni isiqu sakho kunye nesihlobo esinye sesahlulo esinezinto ezibonakalayo (umzekelo, ukutya, indawo yokuhlala, impahla yokunxiba), kodwa ngenxa yokuba zonyusa namathuba okuzala ngokuthintela ezinye Amadoda ukusukela ekutshateni. Ukuya kuthi ga kwinqanaba lokuba ubukhosi bubonise ukunxibelelanisa ikhonkco phakathi kokuthatha umngcipheko kunye nokuzala, yenza umbono ofanelekileyo wokuzijika ukuze unyuse umngcipheko wokuthatyathwa kude kufike ixesha lokuvuthwa okwenzekileyo, ukuze abo bafaka umngcipheko babe badala ngakumbi ngokwamandla nokubonakala .

Ngokubhekisele ekukhetheni ngokwesondo, iminqweno yokufuna iminqweno yamadoda inokuba ithumele imiyalezo malunga nokunqweneleka kwayo njengeqabane lokulala nomntu oza kuba liqabane lakho lomtshato. Kuyenza ingqiqo yendalo ukuba amadoda azibandakanye kwezi ndlela zitsala umdla wabasetyhini kunye nokokuba ababhinqileyo bakhethe abesilisa ikakhulu ukuba bazale abantwana benamathuba aphezulu okusinda nokuzizala kwakhona (I-Steinberg kunye neBelsky, ngo-1996). Kwimibutho yase-aboriginal efundwa zizifo zenzululwazi ukufumana ulwazi ngeemeko apho imeko yokuziphatha kwabantu ivele khona (umzekelo, i-Ache eVenezuela; iYamamano eBrazil; i-! Kung in Africa), "abafana abancinci bahlala bevavanywa njengoko amathemba ngabo abanokuthi babanyule babe ngabayeni kunye nabathandi… ”(UWilson noDaly, ngo-1993, iphe. I-99, ugxininiso kwasekuqaleni). Ngaphaya koko, "ubuchule ekuzingeleni, emfazweni, kunye neminye imisebenzi eyingozi ngokuqinisekileyo ibonakalisa ukuba umtshato wabantu abatsha"UWilson noDaly, ngo-1993, iphe. 98). Abafundi bayayithandabuza le ngxoxo yokuba izinto zazivelela bayakhunjuzwa ngobutyebi bolwazi kunye nemiboniso bhanyabhanya yento yokuba amantombazana akwishumi elivisayo afumanisa ukuba “amakhwenkwe angalunganga” anomdla kwisini. Nokuba kuluntu lweli xesha, kukho ubungqina obuqinisekileyo bokuba amantombazana akwishumi elivisayo ayathanda kwaye afumane amakhwenkwe aqaqambileyo nanobukrwada (IPellegrini kunye nexesha elide, 2003).

Nangona uluvo lokuba ukuthathwa komngcipheko kuguquguquka kwinqanaba lokufikisa kwenza ukuba ibe yinto eqondakalayo xa isetyenziswa kuhlalutyo lwesimilo kunakwindlela yokuziphatha yabasetyhini, kwaye nangona kukho ubungqina bokuba ulutsha olungamadoda luzibandakanya kwezinye iindlela zobungozi bokwenyani-behlabathi rhoqo ingakumbi kunabafazi.IHarris, iJenkins, kunye neGlaser, ngo-2006), umahluko ngokwesondo ekuthatheni umngcipheko awusoloko ubonwa kwizifundo zaselabhoratri zokuthatha umngcipheko (umzekelo, UGalvan et al., 2007). Ngapha koko, amanqanaba aphezulu okuthatha umngcipheko kubantu abakwishumi elivisayo kuthelekiswa nabantu abadala afakiwe kwizifundo zamabhinqa kunye nawamadoda (UGardner kunye noSteinberg, 2005). Inyani yokuba umsantsa wesini ekuthatheni umngcipheko kwilizwe lokwenyani ubonakala uncipha (Byrnes, Miller, & Schafer, 1999) kwaye ukuba izifundo zokucinga ezisebenzisa umngcipheko wokuthatha iparadigms azifumani umahluko ngokwesini (UGalvan et al., 2007) Icebisa ukuba umahluko ngokwesondo ekuziphatheni okuyingozi unokulawula ngaphezulu ngokwemeko kunokuba kube kubi.

Utshintsho ekufuneni imbuyekezo, ukuthabatha umngcipheko, kunye nokubuzwa ngokuqaqamba kubutsha

Iziphumo ezininzi ezivela kuphando lwamva nje noogxa bam kunye nam siye saqhuba ngokwahluka kobudala kumandla anokuchaphazela ukuthatha umngcipheko ayahambelana nombono wokuba ixesha lokufikisa ingakumbi lixesha leenguqu ezibalulekileyo kutyekelo lwabantu ekuthabatheni nasekuthatheni umngcipheko (bona USteinberg, uCauffman, uWoolard, uGraham, kunye noBanich, 2007 kwinkcazo yesifundo). Ngokwazi kwam, esi sesinye sezifundo ezizezinye ezinesampulu ehamba ububanzi obaneleyo (ukusuka kwiminyaka eli-10 ukuya kwengama-30) kwaye inkulu ngokwaneleyo (N = 935) yokuvavanya umahluko wophuhliso kuyo yonke iminyaka yobudala, kwinqanaba lokufikisa, kunye ukuba mdala. Ibhetri yethu ibandakanya inani lamanyathelo okusetyenziswa ngokubanzi okuzixela, kubandakanya iBesthin Risk Perception Measure (Benthin, Slovic, & Severson, 1993), iBarratt Impulsiveness Scale (UPatton, uStanford, kunye noBarratt, ngo-1995), kunye ne-Zuckerman Sello-Scale-Scale (UZuckerman et al., 1978)¹, kunye nezinye ezintsha ezenzelwe le projekthi, kubandakanywa nomyinge woLwazi ngeKamva (I-Steinberg et al., 2007) kunye nenqanaba lokumelana nokuPhenjelelwa koontanga (USteinberg noMonahan, kumaphephandaba). Ibhetri ibandakanya imisebenzi emininzi elawulwa yikhompyuter, kubandakanya i-Iowa Gancing Task, ethi ilawule imbuyekezo yokuziva (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, kunye noAnderson, 1994); Umsebenzi wokuCothisa ukuCuthwa, olinganisa ukukhethwa ngokuhambelana nembuyekezo yokulibaziseka kwangoko (Luhlaza, Myerson, Ostaszewski, 1999); kunye neNqaba yaseLondon, ebonisa amanyathelo okucwangcisa kwangaphambili (IBerg & Byrd, 2002).

Sifumene ubudlelwane obukhoyo phakathi kweminyaka yobudala kunye nendlela abantu abathe baxela ngayo ukuba izibonelelo zazikhupha iindleko zemisebenzi eyahlukeneyo enobungozi, njengokulala ngesondo okungakhuselekanga okanye ukukhwela imoto eqhutywa ngumntu osele, kunye naphakathi kobudala kunye nokuzazisa Ukufuna iimvakaleloI-Steinberg, i-2006). Kuba inguqulelo yethu ye-Iowa Gask Task yasivumela ukuba senze amanyathelo azimeleyo okhetho lwabaphenduli beedeski ezivelise izibonelelo zemali ngokuchaseneyo nokuphepha kwabo iideski ezivelise ilahleko yemali, sinokujonga ngokwahlukileyo kubudala umahluko kumvuzo nakwimvakalelo yesohlwayo. Okubangela umdla kukuba, sifumene ubudlelwane obunobugocigoci phakathi kobudala kunye nokuziva komvuzo, ngokufana nephethini ebonwe kukhetho lomngcipheko kunye nokufuna uvakalelo, kodwa hayi phakathi kobudala kunye nokuziva isohlwayo, okuye kwanda ngokulandelelana (UCauffman, uClaus, uShulman, uBanich, uGraham, uWoolard, kunye noSteinberg, 2007). Ngokukodwa ngakumbi, amanqaku ngokufuna-uvakalelo, ukuthanda umngcipheko, kunye nokuziva komvuzo konke ukunyuka ukusuka kubudala be-10 kude kube kwinqanaba lokufikisa (ukuphakama kwindawo ethile phakathi kwe13 kunye ne-16, kuxhomekeke kumlinganiso) kwaye kunciphile emva koko. Ukukhetha phambili kwimivuzo yexesha elifutshane kumsebenzi wokuCothisa ukuCothisa kwakuyeyona nto ibalaseleyo phakathi kweminyaka eyi-12- ukuya kwi-13-(USteinberg, uGraham, u-O'Brien, uWoolard, uCauffman, kunye noBanich, 2007), ehambelana kwakhona nomnqweno ophakamileyo wemvakalelo malunga nokufikisa. Ngokwahlukileyo, amanqaku kumanyathelo ezinye izinto zengqondo, ezinjengokuqhelaniswa nexesha elizayo, ulawulo lwempembelelo, kunye nokuxhathisa kwiimpembelelo zoontanga, kunye nezohlwayo ezinobungozi kwi-Iowa Gossip Task kunye nokucwangciswa kwi-tower yaseLondon, kubonise ukwanda komgca ngaphezulu kwale Ixesha lobudala, elicebisa ukuba iphethini yecarvilinear ebonwe ngokubhekisele ekukhangeleni uvakalelo, ukuthanda umngcipheko, kunye nokuqaqambisa imbuyekezo ayisiyombonakaliso nje yokuvuthwa kwengqondo ngokubanzi. Njengoko ndizakuchaza, ezi patheni zimbini zahlukeneyo zokungafani kweminyaka ziyahambelana nemodeli ye-neurobiological yenguqu yophuhliso ekuthatheni umngcipheko ndicwangcisiwe kweli nqaku.

Ukonyuka kokufuna uvakalelo, ukuthanda umngcipheko, kunye nokuziva uvakalelo phakathi kokufika kuqala kunye nokufikisa okuphakathi okujongwa kwisifundo sethu kuyahambelana nezifundo zokuziphatha kweentonga ezibonisa ukwanda okuphambili kwesikhundla somvuzo ngexesha lokufikisa (umz. I-Spear, 2000). Kukho ubungqina bokuba lutshintsho kulindelo lweziphumo zokuthatha umngcipheko, ngokuziphatha okuyingozi kunokunxulunyaniswa nolindelo lweziphumo ezibi phakathi kwabantwana kodwa zibe neziphumo ezihle ngakumbi phakathi kolutsha. ekusebenzeni kwi-nucleus eqokelela ngexesha lokuthatha imisebenzi yobungozi (UGalvan et al., 2007).

Utshintsho kwi-Neural Oxetocin xa ufikisa

Ukulungiswa ngokutsha kwenkqubo ye-dopaminergic yenye yeenguqu ezininzi ezibalulekileyo kwintlangano ye-synaptic enokuthi iqhubele phambili ukunyuka kokuthathwa komngcipheko okwenzeka kwangaphambi kokufikisa. Olunye utshintsho olubalulekileyo kwintlangano ye-synaptic inxibelelene ngokuthe ngqo kunye nokunyuka kwamahomoni e-gonadal xa ufikisa. Ngokubanzi, uphononongo lufumanisa ukuba i-gonadal steroids inempembelelo enamandla kwimemori yolwazi loluntu kunye nokubopha ngokuhlangana (UNelson, Leibenluft, McClure, kunye nePine, 2005), kwaye ukuba ezi mpembelelo zixolelanisiwe, ubuncinci ngenxalenye, ngempembelelo ye-gonadal steroids ekwandeni kwama-receptors e-oxytocin (ihormoni esebenza njenge-neurotransmitter) kwizakhiwo ezahlukeneyo ze-limbic, kubandakanya i-amygdala kunye ne-nucleus accumbens. Nangona uninzi lusebenza kutshintsho kwii-oxytocin receptors xa ufikisa luhlolisise indima ye-estrogen (umz. UMiller et al., 1989; Tribollet, Charpak, Schmidt, Dubois-Dauphin, kunye noDreifuss, 1989), kukho ubungqina beziphumo ezifanayo ze testosterone (I-Chibbar et al., 1990; Insel et al., 1993). Ngaphaya koko, ngokwahlukileyo kwizifundo zeentonga ze-gonadectomised, ezibonisa imiphumo embalwa ye-gonadal steroids xa ufikisa kwi-dopamine receptor remodeling (Andersen et al., 2002), Izifundo zovavanyo olusebenzisa i-gonadal steroids ngexesha lokufikisa ngolawulo lwe-post-gonadectomy ye-steroids zibonisa imiphumo ngqo ye-estrogen kunye ne-testosterone kwi-oxytocin-Mediated neurotransmission (I-Chibbar et al., 1990; Insel et al., 1993).

I-Oxetocin mhlawumbi yaziwa kakhulu ngendima eliyidlalayo ekubophelekeni kwezentlalo, ngakumbi ngokubhekisele ekuziphatheni koomama, kodwa ikwabalulekile kulawulo lokuqwalaselwa kunye nokukhunjulwa kwesimo sentlalo (Insel kunye noFernald, 2004; IWinslow kunye ne-Insel, ngo-2004). Njengoko uNelson et al. Qaphela, "iihomoni ze-gonadal zineempembelelo ezibalulekileyo kwindlela izakhiwo ngaphakathi [kwenkqubo yeemvakalelo zentlalo] ezisabela ngayo kwisimo sentlalontle, kwaye ekugqibeleni ziya kuba nefuthe kwizimpendulo zokomoya kunye nokuziphatha okukhuthazwayo luvuselelo lwentlalo ngexesha lokufikisa" (2005, iphe. 167). Olu tshintsho lwehomoni lusiza ukucacisa ukuba kutheni, xa kuthelekiswa nabantwana kunye nabantu abadala, abakwishumi elivisayo babonisa ikakhulu ukusebenza okuphezulu kwengcinezelo ye-limbic, paralimbic, kunye nendawo zangaphambili zempendulo ukuphendula kwiimvakalelo zentlalo kunye noluntu, kubandakanya ubuso obunezimvo ezahlukeneyo nezimvo. Bakwacacisa ukuba kutheni ixesha lokufikisa lelona xesha lokuqonda okukhulu kwezimvo zabanye, kangangokuba ulutsha luhlala luzibandakanya kwindlela yokuziphatha "yabaphulaphuli", ebandakanya ukuba nolwazi lokuziva luze umntwana acinge ukuba ulutsha lucinga ukuba Ukuziphatha kukugxininisa kwinkxalabo yomntu wonke kwaye ingqalelo yakhe. Imvakalelo yokuziva ungakumbi ngexesha lokufikisa, ukuthabathisa ukubudala be-15, emva koko unqabe (Usetyenziso, uLane, iGibons, kunye neGerrard, ngo-2004). Oku kuphakama kunye nokuwa kokuziva ngokwakho kubangelwe ziinguqu kukucinga kwe-hypothetical (El mosa, 1967kunye nokwehla kwezinga lentembeko loluntu (Usetyenziso, uLane, iGibons, kunye neGerrard, ngo-2004), kwaye nangona ezi zinokuthi zibe negalelo kule nto, ukuvusa uthungelwano lweemvakalelo zentlalo ngenxa yokunyuka kwehomoni ye-pubertal kusenokwenzeka ukuba nayo idlale indima.

Impembelelo zoontanga bakho emngciphekweni

Unxibelelwano olucetywayo phakathi kokunwenwela kwee-oxytocin receptors kunye nokwanda komngcipheko ekukhulelweni akufani ngokucacileyo; inene, ngokubona ukubaluleka kwe-oxetocin ekunikezelweni komtshato kumama, umntu unokuxela kwangaphambili into eyahlukileyo (okt, kuya kuba yinto engalunganga ngoomama ukuba baziphathe ngendlela eyingozi ngelixa bekhathalela abantwana abaxhomekeke kakhulu). Ukuphikisana kwam ayisiyo yokuba ukunyuka kwe-oxytocin kukhokelela ekuthatheni umngcipheko, kodwa, kodwa kukhokelela ekunyukeni kokungqinelani kobudlelwane boontanga, kwaye ukuba oku kunyuka kokungathathi cala koontanga kudlala indima ekukhuthazeni indlela yokuziphatha eyingozi.

Ukuthathelwa ingqalelo okuphezulu kukhuthazo lwentlalo oluphumela njengesiphumo sokufikisa kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni ukuthatha umngcipheko kulutsha. Enye yeempawu eziphambili zokuthatha umngcipheko kolutsha kukuba kunokwenzeka ukuba ngaphezulu kunokuba kwenzeka kubantu abadala ngokwamaqela. Inqanaba apho oontanga bakhe abakwishumi elivisayo besebenzisa utywala okanye iziyobisi ezingekho mthethweni sesinye sezona zinto zinamandla, ukuba ayisiyiyo eyomeleleyo, iqagela lokusetyenziswa kwesiyobisi komntwana ofikisayo (I-Chassin et al., 2004). Uphando malunga neengozi zeemoto lubonisa ukuba ubukho babakhweli abakwiminyaka efanayo kwimoto eqhutywa ngumqhubi ofikisayo bonyusa kakhulu umngcipheko wengozi embi (I-Simons-Morton, Lerner, & Springer, 2005). Abafikisayo banamathuba okuba babelane ngesondo xa oontanga babo (IDiBlasio kunye neBenda, 1992; EMpuma, uFelice, kunye noMorgan, ngo-1993; Udry, 1987) kwaye nini Kholelwa ukuba abahlobo babo bayabelana ngesondo, nokuba ngaba abahlobo babo ngokwenene abayi (Babalola, 2004; I-Brooks-Gunn kunye neFurstenberg, ngo-1989; I-DiIorio et al., 2001; Prinstein, Meade, & Cohen, 2003). Kwaye izibalo eziqulunqwe yi-Federal Bureau yoPhando zibonisa ngokucacileyo ukuba ulutsha lunokubanzima kakhulu kunabantu abadala ukuba benze amatyala amaqela kunabo (I-Zimring, 1998).

Zininzi iinkcazo ezinokubakho zokuba uthatha ingozi yokufikisa kwenzeka rhoqo kumaqela. Ubuninzi bezinto ezithatha umngcipheko kwiqela elikufikisa kunokuvela kwinto yokuba ulutsha luchithe ixesha elininzi kumaqela oontanga kunokuba kusenziwa ngabantu abadala (IBrown, i-2004). Olunye uluvo kukuba ubukho boontanga buyekisa ukujikeleza kwe-neural okufanayo nokunyanzeliswa kumvuzo, kwaye oku kuphembelela ulutsha ekufikeleleni kwimvakalelo enkulu. Ukujonga ukuba ubukho boontanga budlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuthatheni umngcipheko ngexesha lokufikisa, senze uvavanyo apho ulutsha (kuthetha ubudala be-14), ulutsha (kuthetha ubudala be-20), kunye nabantu abadala (kuthetha ubudala be-34) yabelwa ukuba igcwalise ibhetri kwimisebenzi esecompyuter phantsi kwemeko ezimbini: eyedwa okanye phambi kwabahlobo ababini (UGardner kunye noSteinberg, 2005). Omnye wemisebenzi ebandakanywe kolu phononongo yayingumdlalo wokuqhuba ividiyo ojonga imeko apho umntu esondela kwindlela, ubona isibane esidlulayo sityhutyhe ityheli, kwaye sizame ukuthatha isigqibo sokuba siyeke okanye siqhubeke ngokunqamleza kuhola wendlela. Emsebenzini, imoto ihamba ngescreen, kwaye ukukhanya kwetrafiki ephuzi kuyavela, kubonakalisa ukuba ngelinye ixesha kungekudala, kuya kuvela udonga kwaye imoto iya kungqubeka. Umculo odlamkileyo udlala ngasemva. Nje ukuba ukukhanya okuphuzi kubonakale, abathathi-nxaxheba kufuneka bathathe isigqibo sokuba baqhubeke nokuqhuba okanye basebenzise iibhuleki. Abathathi-nxaxheba baxelelwa ukuba xa behamba ixesha elide, amanqaku abawafumanayo kodwa ukuba imoto iwela eludongeni, onke amanqaku athe aqokelelwa alahlekile. Inani lexesha elidlula phakathi kokubonakala kokukhanya kunye nokubonakala kodonga luyahlukahluka kuzo zonke izilingo, ke ngoko akukho ndlela yokucinga ukuba imoto iya kutshona nini. Abantu abanomdla wokuthatha umngcipheko kulo mdlalo baqhube imoto ixesha elide kunabo basemngciphekweni omkhulu. Xa izifundo zodwa, amanqanaba okuqhuba eyingozi athelekiswa kuwo onke amaqela amathathu ubudala. Nangona kunjalo, ubukho babahlobo obuphindwe kabini bokuthatha umngcipheko phakathi kwabakwishumi elivisayo, bonyuse ngamashumi amahlanu eepesenti phakathi kolutsha, kodwa aluchaphazeli abantu abadala, iphethini eyayifana phakathi kwabesilisa nabasetyhini (ngelishwa, safumana eyona nto iphambili. Isiphumo sesondo, kunye namadoda kuthatha umngcipheko ngakumbi kunabafazi). Ukubakho koontanga kukonyuse ukuzimisela kwabantu ukuba baziphathe ngendlela enqabileyo kakhulu phakathi kwabancinci kunezifundo ezindala, kwakhona, phakathi kwamadoda nabafazi.

Obunye ubungqina bokuba ifuthe loontanga ekuthatheni umngcipheko wokufikisa kwinqanaba leshumi elivisayo linokungenelelwa ngokuchaphazeleka ngokusebenza okuphezulu kwinethiwekhi yezentlalo ivela kumsebenzi othile wokuqhuba esenze nezifundo ezibini zamadoda ze19.I-Steinberg kunye ne-Chein, ngo-2006). Kulomsebenzi, siqokelele idatha ye-fMRI ngelixa izifundo zisenza ingxelo ehlaziyiweyo yomsebenzi wokuqhuba, apho badibana khona nothotho lweendibano kunye nezibane zethrafikhi ezijika zityheli kwaye kwafuneka benze isigqibo sokuba bazame ukuqhuba na phakathi kwendlela (ezonyusa) umvuzo wabo ukuba bawugqibe ngokukhuselekileyo kodwa banciphise ukuba bangqubeka kwimoto esondelayo) okanye basebenzise iibhuleki (eziya kuthi zinciphise umvuzo wabo kodwa zingabi ngathi zibhuqeke imoto). Njengoko kwi UGardner noSteinberg (2005) ukufunda, izifundo zeza elebhu kunye nabahlobo bobabini, kwaye sajongisa imeko yoontanga ngokuba aboontanga bakho babekhona kwigumbi lolawulo lwemagnethi (jonga indlela esiqhuba ngayo isifundo kwikhompyuter yangaphandle esweni kwaye sifumana isabelo sesincoko semali yesifundo) okanye sisusiwe kwigumbi elikwanti. Izihloko zenze ukuqhutywa kabini kwemisebenzi yokuqhuba kwimeko yangoku yoontanga, kunye ezibini zikwisimo sokungabikho kontanga; Kwimeko-bume yangoku yoontanga, baxelelwa ukuba abahlobo babo baya kubukela, kwaye kwimeko yokungabikho kontanga, baxelelwa ukuba izihlobo zabo azizukubona ukusebenza kwazo. Idatha yokuziphatha ngokuqokelelwa kwezifundo kwisikenisi ichaze ukonyuka kokuthathwa komngcipheko ebusweni boontanga obufanayo nobukhulu kulokho kuqaphelelwe kuphando lwangaphambili, njengoko kungqinwa kukonyuka kwenani leengozi kunye nokuhla okuhamba rhoqo kumaza braking xa izibane zendlela zajika zatyheli.

Uvavanyo lwedatha ye-fMRI lubonise ukuba ubukho koontanga buye basebenza kwimimandla ethile engazange yenziwe xa umdlalo wokuqhuba udlalwa kwimeko yokungabikho kontanga. Njengoko kulindeleke, ngaphandle kwemeko yoontanga, izigqibo zomsebenzi wokuqhuba zenze ukuba uthungelwano olusasazeke ngokubanzi lweendawo zobuchopho zibandakanya ii-cortices zangaphambili kunye ne-parietal Association (imimandla enxulumene nolawulo lwengqondo kunye nokuqiqa). Kodwa kwimeko yangoku yoontanga, sikwabonile ukwanda komsebenzi kwicala elingaphambili le-cialex, sishiya i-ventral striatum (ngokuyintloko kwii-accumbens), ishiye i-temporion yesiporho ephezulu, kwaye yashiya izakhiwo zokwexeshana zekamva. Ngamanye amagama, ubukho boontanga buvuselela uthungelwano lweemvakalelo kwaye lukhokelela ekuziphatheni okuyingozi ngakumbi. Lo ngumsebenzi wokulinga, ewe, ke, kubalulekile ukuba ulumke xa utolika. Kodwa inyani yokuba ubukho koontanga buvuseleleke kwisekethe efanayo eqhutywa kukuchatshazelwa emvuzweni iyahambelana nembono yokuba ontanga banokwenza okunokwenzeka kube kunomvuzo-kwaye kunokubeka umngcipheko - imisebenzi iba ngumvuzo ngakumbi. Ebufazini, ke, ngaphezulu akunakuba nje kukudibana - ngaphezulu kunokuba kukhuphuka.

Ubume boLwakhiwo lweNkqubo yoLawulo lweNgqondo

Iinguqu ezintathu ezibalulekileyo kubume bengqondo ngexesha lokufikisa ngoku zibhaliwe kakuhle (jonga I-Paus, 2005, ngesishwankathelo). Okokuqala, kukho ukwehla kwento engwevu kwiindawo ezingaphambi kwengqondo ngexesha lokufikisa, kubonakaliswa ukuthenwa kwe-synaptic, inkqubo ekupheliswa kuyo uqhagamshelo lwe-neuronal olungasetyenziswanga. Ukupheliswa konxibelelwano olungasetyenziswanga lwe-neuronal kwenzeka ikakhulu ngexesha lokufikisa kunye nokufikisa, ixesha apho kuphuculo oluphambili kulwazi olusisiseko kunye nokuqiqa okubonakalayo (Ukubetha, 2004; I-Overton, i-1990), ehambelana nexesha lokuhanjiswa kwe-synaptic kwikhonkco eliphambili, uninzi lwayo lugqityiwe kukufikisa (Icasey et al., 2005; Jonga kwakhona uCasey, uGetz, kunye noGalvan, lo mbandela). Nangona ezinye izinto ziphuculiwe kwezi zakhono zokuqonda ziqhubeka de kube yiminyaka engama-20 okanye njalo (I-Kail, 1991, 1997), iinguqu emva kobudala obufikisayo bezithobile kakhulu ngobukhulu kwaye zihlala zibonakala ikakhulu kwizifundo zisebenzisa imisebenzi efuna ukuqonda apho ukusebenza kuqhutywa ngokudibana okukhulu kwiindawo zecortical, ukuvumela ukuqhubekeka kokusebenza okusebenzayo (jonga ngezantsi). Kwisifundo sethu samandla ahambelana nokuthatha umngcipheko okuchazwe ngaphambili, asibonanga phuculo kwiinkqubo ezisisiseko zokuqonda, ezinje ngememori yokusebenza okanye ukuthetha ngokuthetha, emva kobudala be-16 (I-Steinberg et al., 2007).

Okwesibini, kukho ukonyuka komba omhlophe kwezi ngingqi zifanayo, kubonakaliswa i-myelination, inkqubo ekuthi ngayo ii-nerve fibers zibe sheathed kwi-myelin, into enamafutha ebonelela ngohlobo lokufakelwa kwe-neural circry. Ngokungafaniyo nokudunwa kwe-synaptic kweendawo eziphambili, ezenzeka kuqala ebusheni, i-myelination iyaqhubeka kakuhle kwishumi lesibini lobomi kwaye mhlawumbi ngaphaya (I-Lenroot, Gogtay, Greenstein, Wells, Wallace, Clasen, et al., 2007). Unxibelelwano oluphuculweyo ngaphakathi kwe-cortex yangaphambili kufuneka inxulunyaniswe nokuphuculwa okwalandelayo kwimisebenzi yolandelelwano oluphezulu exhaswa kwiindawo ezininzi zangaphambili, kubandakanya imiba emininzi yomsebenzi wolawulo, njengokuthintela ukuphendula, ukucwangcisa kwangaphambili, ukulinganisa umngcipheko kunye nemivuzo, kunye nokuqwalaselwa ngaxeshanye kwemithombo emininzi yolwazi. Ngokuchasene noko sikufumanisileyo ngokubhekisele kulungiso lolwazi olusisiseko, olungakhange lubonakalise ukuvuthwa ngaphezulu kobudala be-16, sifumene ukuphuculwa okugqithileyo kwesi sizukulwana ekuzixeleni ngokwekamva (okuye kwenyuka ngenxa yobudala be-18) kunye nokucwangciswa (njengoko kuchazwe ngokwexabiso lemali Izifundo zexesha zilinde ngaphambi kokuba zihambele phambili kwiNqaba yaseLondon umsebenzi, eyonyukayo kungekuphela kobuntwana kodwa nge20s yokuqala).

Ngokubanzi, ukusebenza kwimisebenzi eyenza ukuba ii-lobes zangaphambili ziqhubeke ngokuphuculwa kwinqanaba lokufikisa eliphakathi (ukuya kuthi ga kubudala beminyaka eyi-16 kwimisebenzi yobunzima obuphakathi), ngokwahlukileyo kwintsebenzo kwimisebenzi esebenzayo ngakumbi kwingingqi ezingasemva kwengqondo, ezifikelela kumanqanaba abantu abadala ekupheleni imbonakalo yangaphambiliIConklin, uLuciana, iHooper, kunye neYarger, ngo-2007). Ukuphuculwa komsebenzi wokuphatha kwinqanaba lokufikisa kubonakaliswa ngokusebenza okungcono ngeminyaka kwimisebenzi eyaziwayo yokwenza ikamva lesiseko sangaphambili, ezinje ngovavanyo olunzima lwenkumbulo yokusebenza kwendawo (I-Conklin et al., 2007) okanye ngakumbi ucelomngeni lokuvavanya impendulo kuthintelo (I-Luna et al., 2001); kunye ne-cortex ye-ventromedial yangaphambili, njenge-Iowa Tas Gask Task (Crone kunye no van van Molen, 2004; IHooper, iLuciana, iConklin, kunye neYarger, ngo-2004). Nangona ezinye iimvavanyo zomsebenzi omkhulu zisebenza ngaxeshanye kusebenze zombini imimandla e-dorsolateral kunye ne-ventromedial, kukho ubungqina bokuba ukuguqulwa kwale mimandla kungenzeka ngokuhamba kwamaxesha ahlukeneyo, ukusebenza kwimisebenzi ekhethekileyo ye-ventromedial efikelela kumanqanaba abantu abadala ngaphambili kunokwenziwa kwemisebenzi ekhethekileyo yentsusa. (I-Conklin et al., 2007; UHooper et al., 2004). Kolu phononongo lwakutsha nje lokwehluka kobudala ekusebenzeni kwengqondo kusetyenziswa imisebenzi eyaziwa ukuba isebenze kule mimandla mibini, bekukho ukuphucuka okunxulumene nobudala ukuya kwinqanaba lokufikisa zombini ezi ntlobo zimbini zemisebenzi, kodwa kwakungekho lungelelaniso lubalulekileyo phakathi kokusebenza kwimisebenzi ye-ventromedial and dorsolateral imisebenzi , iphakamisa ukuba uguquko lwe-cortex yangaphambili ye-ventromal isenokuba yinkqubo eyahlukileyo yokuthuthuka ukusuka kuvutho lwe-dorsolateral preortal cortex (UHooper et al., 2004). Intsebenzo kwimisebenzi enzima eyaziwayo yokwenza iindawo ezinomtsalane kuqhubeke ukuphucuka ngexesha lokufikisa (Ikhona, iDonohue, iHonomichl, iWendelken, kunye neBunge, 2006; I-Luna et al., 2001).

Okwesithathu, njengoko kubonakalisiwe kulwandiso lweengqikelelo zamaphecana emicimbi emhlophe kwiingingqi ezahlukeneyo zobuchopho, kukho ukonyuka kungekuphela kunxibelelwano phakathi kweendawo zecortical (naphakathi kweendawo ezahlukileyo zecortex yangaphambili), kodwa phakathi kweendawo zecortical kunye nezingaphantsi komhlaba (kwaye, ngakumbi , phakathi kwemimandla yangaphambili kunye ne-limbic kunye ne-paralimbic, kubandakanya i-amygdala, i-nucleus accumbens, kunye ne-hippocampus) (I-Eluvathingal, Hasan, Kramer, Fletcher, kunye ne-Ewing-Cobbs, 2007). Olutshintsho lwesithathu lwe-anatomical kufuneka lunxulunyaniswe nolungelelwaniso oluphuculweyo lwefuthe kunye nokuqonda, kwaye lubonakaliswe kummiselo ophuculweyo weemvakalelo, oqhutywa kukunxibelelana okwandileyo kwemimandla ebalulekileyo ekusebenzeni kolwazi lweemvakalelo kunye noluntu (umzekelo, i-amygdala, i-ventral striatum, i-orbitofrontal cortex, I-medial preortal cortex, kunye ne-temporal ye-tempial yangaphambili kunye nemimandla ebalulekileyo kwiinkqubo zokulawulwa kwengqondo (umzekelo, i-dorsolateral preortal cortex, anterior and postterior cingulate, kunye ne-temporo-parietal cortices). Ngokuhambelana noku, sifumene ulonyuso kulawulo lwempembelelo yokuzifaka ngaphakathi kwe20s (I-Steinberg, i-2006).

Umsebenzi oguqulwayo kwiNkqubo yoLawulo lweNgqondo

Izifundo ezisebenzayo zokuphuhliswa kobuchopho ebusheni buhambelana kakhulu noko kufunyanisiweyo kwizifundo zesakhiwo kunye nakwizifundo zophuhliso lwengqondo nengqondo. Izigqibo ezininzi ezixananazileyo ezinokuthathwa kolu phando. Okokuqala, izifundo zikhomba ukukhula ngokuthe ngcembe kweendlela zokulawula ukuqonda ngexesha lokufikisa kunye nokuba mdala, ngokuhambelana notshintsho olwenziwe kwi-dorsolateral preortal cortex echazwe ngaphambili. Izifundo zokulinganisa ezihlola intsebenzo kwimisebenzi efuna ulawulo lwengqondo (umzekelo, iStroop, imisebenzi yeflanker, Yiya-Hayi / Yiya, i-antisaccade) ibonise ukuba ulutsha luyekelela ekufumaneni umsebenzi womnatha ngendlela engeyiyo kunabantu abadala, kwanokuba imimandla yomsebenzi wayo uhambelana nokwenza umsebenzi ( okt, iindawo zolawulo lolwazi) zisebenza ngakumbi zihambelane nobudala (UDurston et al., 2006). Kucetyiswe ukuba ukubandakanyeka okujolisekileyo kokuzibandakanya kweendawo zolawulo lwengqondo kubonakalisa ukomelela konxibelelwano ngaphakathi kwenethiwekhi yolawulo, kunye noqikelelo lwayo kweminye imimandla (ibango elihambelana nedatha yokunxibelelana okwandisiweyo phakathi kweendawo zecortical kunye nophuhliso; U-Liston et al., 2006).

Ukuphuculwa kokusebenza kwimisebenzi yokulawula kwengqondo phakathi kobuntwana kunye nokuba mdala kuhambisana neenguqu ezimbini ezisebenzayo: phakathi kobuntwana kunye nokufikisa, kubonakala ngathi kukho ukonyuka kokusebenza kwe-dorsolateral pre kwangaphambilial cortex (Adelman et al., 2002; Icasey et al., 2000; UDurston et al., 2002; I-Luna et al., 2001; I-Tamm et al., 2002;), ehambelanayo kunye nokuthenwa kwe-synaptic kunye ne-myelination yalo mmandla ngeli xesha. Ithuba eliphakathi kokufikisa kunye nokuba mdala, ngokuchaseneyo, libonakala njengelinye lokuhlenga-hlengisa (endaweni yokuba kuboniswe ukwanda okanye ukuncipha kokusebenza ngokubanzi; Brown kunye al., 2005), ngokuqhutywa lula ngonxibelelwano olubanzi ngakumbi ngaphakathi nakwiindawo zengqondo (Iscrone et al., 2006; I-Luna et al., 2001). Umzekelo, ukufundela ngokucinga usebenzisa imisebenzi umntu acelwa ukuba ayithintele impendulo "yangaphambi kwexesha", njengokuzama ukujonga kude, endaweni yokujonga, ukukhanya, (ukukhanya umsebenzi), kubonise ukuba ulutsha luye ifune ukuqaphela lawula inethiwekhi ngokungakhethiyo nangokufanelekileyo kunabantu abadala, mhlawumbi ukujongisa umthamo wemimandla abayenzayo.I-Luna et al., 2001). Eyona nto ibalulekileyo, ngeli thuba ithuba lokuba abantwana abafikisayo babe ngaphezulu kwabantwana kulawulo lokuqonda kwengqondo kwimimandla yobuchopho ebethelelwa ekusebenzeni isigxina (ubukhulu becala, isiseko senkqubo yolawulo lwabadala isebenza ngakumbi kunaleyo yabakwishumi elivisayo. ngenxa yokuba iingqondo zabantu abadala zenza ukuba kusebenze umahluko ngakumbi ukuphendula kwiimfuno ezahlukeneyo zomsebenzi. Oku kuyahambelana nengcinga yokuba ukusebenza kwiimvavanyo ezisisiseko zesiseko sokulawula okuphezulu kufikelela kwinqanaba labantu abadala kwi-16, ngelixa ukwenziwa kwemisebenzi ecel'umngeni, enokufuna ukwenziwa kwempumelelo esebenzayo, kuyaqhubeka ukuphucula kwinqanaba lokufikisa.

Ngelixa uthungelwano lwengqondo lolawulo lwengqondo lubonakala ngokucacileyo ekuqiqeni nasekuthathweni kwezigqibo, iziphumo ezininzi zakutshanje zibonisa ukuba ukuthatha izigqibo kuhlala kulawulwa kukhuphiswano phakathi kwenethiwekhi kunye nenethiwekhi yeemvakalelo zentlalo (Iidrevets kunye neRaichle, 1998). Olu nxibelelwano lwanomdla lube yimpembelelo kuluhlu olubanzi lokuthathwa kwezigqibo, kubandakanya ukusetyenziswa kweziyobisi (Bechara, 2005; Amagumbi, 2003), ukuqhutywa kwezigqiboSanfey et al., 2003), izigwebo zokuziphatha (Greene et al., 2004), kunye noqingqo lwemivuzo engenye kunye neendleko (McClure et al., 2004; U-Ernst et al., 2004), kunye nakwiakhawunti yokuthatha ingozi yomntwana okufikisa.Amagumbi, 2003). Kwimeko nganye nganye, ukhetho olungenanyanzelekanga okanye olunobungozi luthathwa njengokuvela xa uthungelwano lweemvakalelo zentlalo zilawula inethiwekhi yolawulo lwengqondo. Ngokukodwa ngakumbi, ukuthatha umngcipheko kunokwenzeka ngakumbi xa uthungelwano lweemvakalelo zenzelwa ngakumbi okanye xa iinkqubo ezichongiweyo zinethiwekhi yolawulo lwengqondo ziphazamiseka. Umzekelo, McClure et al. (2004) Ibonakalise ukuba izigqibo ezibonakalisa ukukhetha kwimivuzo emincinci ekhawulezileyo ngaphezulu kokulibaziseka okukhulu kunxulunyaniswa nokunyuswa okuthe xhaxhe kwe-ventral striatum, orbitof mbeleal cortex, kunye ne-cortex yangaphambili yangaphambili, yonke imimandla enxulumene nenethiwekhi yeemvakalelo zentlalo, ngelixa imimandla ibekwa kulawulo lwengqondo (dorsolateral preortalal cortex, ndawo zeparietali) ziqhutywa ngokufanayo kwimibandela yesigqibo. Ngokufanayo, izifundo ezimbini zamva nje (UMateyu et al., 2004; U-Ernst et al., 2004) bonisa ukuba umsebenzi owandisiweyo kwimimandla yenethiwekhi yeemvakalelo zentlalo (i-ventral striatum, medial preortalal cortex) uxela ukukhethwa kokhetho olunomngcipheko (kodwa olunokubangela lukhulu) ngaphezulu kokhetho lokugcina. Okokugqibela, olunye uvavanyo lwakutsha nje olufunyenweyo lufumanise ukuba ukuphazamiseka okwethutyana kokukodwa kwendlela yokusebenza yecortolar phambi kokunyusa amandla kazibuthe (oko kukuthi, ukuphazamiseka kwendawo eyaziwa ngokuba ibalulekile kulawulo lwengqondo) ukwanda komngcipheko kwimisebenzi yokungcakaza (UKnoch, Gianotti, Pascual-Leone, Treyer, Nokuba ngubani, uHohmann, et al., 2006).

Ulungelelaniso lomsebenzi weCortical and Subcortical

Okwesibini, kodwa kubhalwe ngokucacileyo, ukutshintsha kokusebenza kwengqondo ngexesha lokufikisa kubandakanya ukwanda kokubandakanyeka kwemimandla yobuchopho emininzi kwimisebenzi ebandakanya ukuqhutywa kolwazi lweemvakalelo (umzekelo, imbonakalo yobuso, ukuvusa imvakalelo. Nangona kuye kwanikelwa ingxelo ngokubanzi ukuba ulutsha lubonisa imisebenzi enamandla kakhulu kunabantu abadala xa bechaphazeleka ngokweemvakalelo (ezithi ziguqulelwe njengobungqina “bovakalelo” lwolutsha, akusoloko kunjalo. Kwezinye izifundo ezinjalo ulutsha lubonisa utyekelo lokusebenzisa amandla omzimba ngakumbi kunabantu abadala (umzekelo, I-Baird, Gruber, Fein, Maas, Steingard, Renshaw, et al., 1999; IKillgore kunye neYurgulen-Todd, 2007), kodwa kwabanye, abakwishumi elivisayo babonisa ukwenziwa kwangaphambi kokukhetha (umzekelo, UBaird, uFugelsang, kunye noBennett, 2005; UNelson, McClure, uMonk, uZarahn, uLeibenluft, uPine, kunye no-Ernst, 2003). Okuninzi kuxhomekeke kwisikhuthazo esisetyenzisiweyo, nokuba ngaba isikhuthazo sidluliselwe ngokucacileyo okanye ngokungacacanga, kunye nemiyalelo ethile ayinikiweyo (umz., Ukuba uthatha inxaxheba uyacelwa ukuba aqwalasele imvakalelo okanye athobele enye into yento ekhuthazayo ). Ukufundisisa ngononophelo ngakumbi kolu loncwadi ayikukuba abantu abafikisayo bathambekele ngokungaphezulu kunabantu abadala ekusebenzisaneni neengqondo zobuchopho xa beziswa ngovuselelo lweemvakalelo (okanye ukuba "banemvakalelo"), kodwa banokuthi bangabi nakho ukwenza i-cortical ephindwe kabini. kunye neendawo ezingaphantsi kwaxeshanye, ukucebisa ukusilela, ukudibana nabantu abadala, kulungelelwaniso lwengqondo kunye nokuchaphazela.

Ukunqongophala kokuthetha ngokuqatha kwimimandla yobuchopho kukhokelela kungekuphela nje kubantu ababandakanyeka kwiimvakalelo zesisu ngaphandle kokucinga ngokupheleleyo (ukubonakalisa ukubekwa emngciphekweni ngokuthatha umngcipheko kulutsha), kodwa nasekucingeni kakhulu xa kufuneka kuthathelwe ingqalelo ziimvakalelo zesisu (ulutsha olukwishumi elivisayo). yenza amaxesha ngamaxesha) (jonga kwakhona UReyna kunye noFarley, ngo-2006, kwingxoxo yokusilela kwolutsha kuluvo olunqabileyo, okanye "olusekelezwe," ekwenzeni izigqibo. Bambalwa abafundi abanokumangaliswa kukuva ngezifundo ezibonisa ukunganyanzeleki nokungacingi ngokucinga ngabom kulutsha kunabantu abadala. Kodwa kolunye uphando lwamva nje (UBaird, uFugelsang, kunye noBennett, 2005), xa babuzwa ukuba ngaba imisebenzi ethile eyingozi (umz., ukutshisa iinwele ngomlilo, ukubhukuda ngookrebe) "yayizimvo ezilungileyo," ulutsha luthathe ixesha elide (oko kukuthi, lwenziwe ngabom) kunokuba abantu abadala baphendule imibuzo laze lwasebenza kancinane. Ukuhanjiswa kweseti yolawulo lwemimandla yolwazi, ngakumbi kwindawo yentshukumo yangaphambili - isiphumo sokukhumbula isifundo seLuna ngokwahluka kobudala kwithintelo lokuphendula (I-Luna et al., 2001). Oku bekungenjalo xa imisebenzi efunyenweyo ingenabungozi, nangona kunjalo, umzekelo, ukutya isaladi, ukuthatha uhambo), apho ulutsha kunye nabantu abadala benze ngokufanayo kwaye babonisa iipateni ezifanayo zokuvula ingqondo. Ke, kukungabikho kokunxibelelanisa kwempembelelo kunye nokucinga, endaweni yempembelelo kunekucinga, oku kunokuphawula ukuba kwinqanaba lokufikisa. Oku kuphumela kwiipatheni ezimbini zokuthatha ingozi yomngcipheko oziphethe ngokuchaseneyo (ngokungxamisekileyo ngokusebenza ngaphambi kokucinga, kunye nokucinga kakhulu kunokwenza ngokungxama) kodwa eneneni kunokuba nemvelaphi efanayo ye-neurobiological.

Umsantsa okhoyo phakathi kokuphuhliswa kwezakhono ezisisiseko zokulungisa ulwazi, eziququzelelwa ngokwenziwa kwe-cortex yangaphambili kwaye ubukhulu becala lugqitywe ngeminyaka ye-16, kunye nophuhliso lwezakhono ezifuna ukulungelelaniswa kokuchaphazela kunye nokuqonda, okuququzelelwa lunxibelelwano oluphuculweyo phakathi Imimandla ye-cortical kunye naphakathi kwemimandla ye-cortical ne-subcortical, kwaye eyinkqubela phambili kamva, iyabonakaliswa Umzobo 1. Eli nani lisekwe kwidatha esuka kufundo lwethu lwe-10 ukuya kwi-30-iminyaka yabantwana ekhankanywe ngaphambili (I-Steinberg et al., 2007). Ezi zakhono zimbini zibanjisiweyo sisakhono sokufunda esisiseko, oko kukufumana amanqaku nokudibanisa intsebenzo kuvavanyo lwenkumbulo yokusebenza (UThompson-Schill, 2002), ukuphindaphindwa kwedijithali, kunye nokuthetha ngokuvakalayo; kunye nokukhula kwengqondo ngokwasemphefumlweni, okubandakanya amanqaku amanqanaba okuzixela okwenzekileyo, ukuqonda umngcipheko, ukufuna imvakalelo, ukuqhelanisa nekamva, kunye nokumelana nefuthe lontanga elichazwe ngaphambili. Umsebenzi ovuthiweyo ophathelele kwezi zakhono zengqondo kufuna ukulungelelaniswa okusebenzayo kwemvakalelo kunye nokwazi. Eli nani libonisa inani labantu abakwiminyaka nganye yobudala abafumana amanqaku kwi-26- ukuya kwinqanaba le-30-ubudala kwisampula yethu yeengcali zengqondo kunye nengqondo. Njengoko umzo ubonisile, kwaye uhambelana nezinye izifundo, ubuchule bengqondo obusisiseko bufikelela kumanqanaba abantu abadala malunga ne-16 yobudala, kwakudala ngaphambi kokuba inkqubo yokuvuthwa kwengqondo iphele-ibe yiminyaka yokuba mdala.

 

Umzobo 1

Ubungakanani bomntu kwiqela ngalinye labala amanqaku kwi-26- ukuya kwiminyaka eyi-30- iminyaka yobudala kwi-indices yokuqonda ukukhula kwengqondo kunye neengqondo. Isuka I-Steinberg et al., 2007.

Utshintsho kunxibelelwano lweBongo kunye noPhuculo lokuchasana neFuthe loontanga

Unxibelelwano oluphuculweyo phakathi kweendawo zecortical kunye ne subcortical nazo zineempembelelo zokuqonda iinguqu ekuthatheni inxaxheba kwimpembelelo yoontanga, ethi, njengoko benditshilo, inegalelo elibalulekileyo kwindlela yokuziphatha yomngcipheko ngexesha lokufikisa. Ukuxhathisa kwimpembelelo yoontanga, ndiyakholelwa, kufezekiswa ngokulawulwa kokuziphatha okungafunekiyo okuchukunyiswa kukubakho koontanga ngokuvula uthungelwano lweemvakalelo zentlalo. Ukuya kufikelela kwinqanaba lokuba ukuphuculwa konxibelelaniso phakathi kolawulo lwengqondo kunye nothungelwano lweemvakalelo zenze le nkqubo yolawulo, kuya kufuneka ukuba sizuze ukungafikeleli kwimpembelelo yoontanga ngexesha lokufikisa eliqhubeka ubuncinci ukuya kwinqanaba lokufikisa (xa ukuvuthwa konxibelelwano lwommandla phakathi isaqhubeka). Yile nto kanye siyifumene kulo msebenzi wethu, apho sibonisa ukuba impumelelo ngokuxeliweyo ekuchazeni impembelelo yoontanga iqhubeke okungenani de kube yi18 (USteinberg noMonahan, kumaphephandaba), kwaye ukuba eyona mpembelelo yokubakho koontanga kwindlela yokuziphatha eyingozi isabonakala kubantu abaphantsi kwabafundi abafumana uqeqesho kwi-20 iminyaka yobudala (UGardner kunye noSteinberg, 2005).

Izifundo ezibini zamva nje malunga nobudlelwane phakathi kokuchaswa kwimpembelelo yoontanga kunye nobuchopho kunye nomsebenzi zinika inkxaso engaphezulu kule ngxoxo. Kuphononongo lwe-FMRI yabantwana abaneminyaka eyi-43 10 abaneminyaka emininzi bechaphazeleka kwimifanekiso yevidiyo evusa imvakalelo eneenkcukacha zoluntu (iziqwenga zokushukuma kwezandla ezinomsindo okanye ubuso obunomsindo), safumanisa ukuba abantu abanamanqaku asezantsi kwinqanaba lethu lengxelo. Ukuxhathisa kwimpembelelo yoontanga kubonise ukwenziwa okukhulu kwemimandla ebekiweyo kwimbono yezenzo zabanye (okt. ilungelo dorsal premotor cortex), ngelixa abo banamazinga aphezulu kakhulu babonisa unxibelelwano olusebenzayo phakathi kwale mimandla isebenza-kunye nemimandla. (okt. dorsolateral preortal cortex); umahluko onjalo awuzange uqatshelwe xa abantu babeziswa iziqendu ezingathathi cala ngokomoya (IGrosbras, uJansen, Leonard, McIntosh, Osswald, Poulsen, et al., 2007). Ezi ziphumo zibonisa ukuba abantu abathile abachaphazeleka kanobom kwimpembelelo yoontanga banokuvuseleleka ngokungaqhelekanga ngophawu lomsindo kwabanye kodwa bangabi nakho ukulawula amandla abo okuphendula. Kwisifundo sesibini, umahluko kwi-morphology yobuchopho phakathi kwabantu (abaneminyaka eyi-12 ukuya kwi-18) ukufumana amanqaku aphezulu ngokuchaseneyo neempembelelo zoontanga, safumana ubungqina bezemilo ukuba, emva kokulawula iminyaka, ulutsha luphezulu ekuchaseni impembelelo yoontanga lubonise ubungqina bokuba mkhulu Ukudibana kulwakhiwo phakathi kwemimandla engaphambi kotywala kunye nendawo yangaphambili, iphethini ehambelana nokuzibandakanya rhoqo kwezi zinto zonxibelelwano phakathi kwabantu abakwaziyo ukumelana nengcinezelo yoontanga (UPaus, uToro, uLeonard, uLerner, uLerner, uPerron, et al., Ngokushicilelwa). Ikwakhona ngokuhambelana noku ngumsebenzi obonisa ukuba ukufunyanwa kwezixhobo zolawulo lwengqondo (ezinokuthintela ukurhabaxeka koxinzelelo loontanga) kukhulu phakathi kwabantu abanonxibelelwano olomeleleyo phakathi kwemimandla engaphambili kunye ne-striatal (uListon et al., 2005).

Ukulungiselela eli nqaku kwaxhaswa yinkxaso-mali evela kuJohn D. noCatherine T. MacArthur Foundation Network Network kwi-Adolescent Development kunye neJuvenile Justice kunye ne-National Institute on Drug Abuse (1R21DA022546-01). Umxholo okweli phepha, nangona kunjalo, luxanduva lombhali kuphela kwaye akanyanzelisi izimvo ezisemthethweni zale mibutho. Ndiyabulela kumalungu eNethiwekhi uMarie Banich, u-Elizabeth Cauffman, uSandra Graham, noJennifer Woolard ngokusebenzisana kwabo kwiSifundo seMacArthur Juvenile Capacity Study, naku-BJ Casey, Monique Ernst, Danny Pine, Cheryl Sisk, kunye noLinda Spear ngezimvo zabo Uyilo lwangaphambili Ndikwanamatyala kuDanny Pine kunye noJason Chein ngenkqubo yabo yokufunda kwindawo yophuhliso lwe-neuroscience, eye yandenza ukuba ndikwazi ukuxoka kwaye ndivume ngokuthetha ngokuphuhlisa ubuchopho bolutsha kweli phepha. Nasiphi na isikhewu kwimilo okanye ngokuqonda sisibonakaliso kumfundi, hayi kubafundisi-ntsapho bakhe.