Utshintshi ube ngumntu ongaphantsi kunye nokusela ingxaki: iinkqubo zophuhliso kunye neendlela phakathi kwe-10 kunye ne-15 yeminyaka ubudala (2008)

Pediatrics. I-2008 Aprili; 121 Suppl 4: S273-89.

Ifestile M, I-Spear LP, UFuligni AJ, Angold A, Brown JD, I-Pine D, USmith GT, UJiedd J, UDahl RE.

imvelaphi

ISebe lezeNzululwazi ngeZoluleko kunye neMfundo yezeMpilo, iYunivesithi i-Emory, 1518 Clifton Rd NE, Igumbi 520, e-Atlanta, GA 30322, e-USA. [imeyile ikhuselwe]

Abstract

Iinguqu ezininzi zophuhliso zenzeka kuwo onke amanqanaba okuzenzela (umzekelo, iinguqu ezinxulumene nokufikisa, ubuchopho kunye nengqondo eyakhayo-eyakhiweyo kunye nemisebenzi, kunye nolwalamano losapho kunye nontanga) kwisithuba seminyaka ye10 ukuya kwiminyaka ye-15. Ngapha koko, ukuqala kunye nokunyuka kokusetyenziswa kotywala kuxhaphake ngeli xesha. Eli nqaku lisebenzisa zombini izifundo zezilwanyana kunye noluntu ukubonisa ezi nguqu zenguqu zokuphuhlisa. Ixesha kunye nokwahluka kwiinguqu zophuhliso zihambelana nokwahluka komntu ngamnye ekusebenziseni kotywala. Kucetyiswa ukuba olu luvo oluhlanganisiweyo lophuhliso lusebenze njengesiseko seenzame ezilandelayo zokuthintela nokunyanga unobangela, iingxaki, kunye nesiphumo sotywala.

Internet: Umntwana osafundayo, okwishumi elivisayo, ukufikisa, ukusela engafikanga ebuntwaneni, ukusela ingxaki, umngcipheko wokukhusela, utywala kunye nezinye iziyobisi (AOD) zokuqalisa, ukusebenziseka kwe-AOD, ukukhula nokukhula, ukukhula kwezendalo, ukukhula kwengqondo.

Njengoko kuchaziwe kwinqaku elandulelayo nguZucker kunye noogxa bakhe, kunye nabantwana abangaphantsi kweminyaka ye-10 banokububona utywala, baqale ukwenza ezinye izimvo malunga nokusetyenziswa kwayo kunye nemiphumo yokusebenzisa, kwaye banokuba namava abo okuqala ngotywala. Ngaphaya koko, kukho iindlela ezahlukeneyo zomngcipheko nezikhuselayo esele zisebenza ngeli xesha lokukhula kwempembelelo kwiindlela zokuziphatha ukusela ngexesha lokufikisa nokukhula. Zonke ezi nkqubo ziqhubeka ngexesha lokukhula ukusuka kubudala be-10 ukuya kwi-15, elilixesha apho ulutsha oluninzi luqala ukuzilolonga notywala. Eli nqaku lijonga ngokusondeleyo ubudlelwane phakathi kwexesha lokukhula ukusuka kubudala be-10 ukuya kwi-15 kunye nokusetyenziswa kotywala. Isahluko siqala ngokujonga ngokubanzi ukukhula okuqhelekileyo komntu okwiminyaka yobudala (okt, into elindelekileyo ngamaxesha ahlukileyo kwaye yintoni eqhelekileyo kunye ne-atypical kwiminyaka ethile). Ixoxa ngokusetyenziswa kotywala ngexesha lokufikisa kunye naphakathi kobuncinci kunye nomngcipheko kunye nezinto zokukhusela ezinxulumene nokusela kungekazalwa kunye nokusetyenziswa kwexesha elizayo.

Yiya e:

Uphuhliso oluqhelekileyo lweeXesha 10-15: Isishwankathelo

Ixesha elisusela kubudala be-10 ukuya kwiminyaka ye-15 liquka ixesha lokufikisa kunye nesiqalo sokufikisa okuphakathi. Luphawulwa ngotshintsho olukhulu kwiinkqubo zebhayiloji, ingqondo, iimvakalelo kunye nentlalo, kunye nakwimeko yomzimba kunye nentlalo. Ukufikisa luphawu lweli xesha. Ngokubalulekileyo, kule nkulungwane idlulileyo umndilili wokufikisa sele wehlile, kunye namanqaku okusebenza nokuziphatha komntu okwishumi elivisayo. Ixesha elisusela kubudala be-10 ukuya kwi-15 likwabalulekile kwiinguqulelo ezinjengokuhamba ukusuka kwinqanaba lokuqala ukuya kwisikolo esiphakathi ukuya kwisikolo esiphakamileyo. Ngapha koko, imiba yokuzazisa ibalulekile ngeli xesha, njengoko kulindelekile koontanga nakwezentlalo, kubandakanya nezo zibandakanya ukusetyenziswa kotywala. Ngapha koko, lixesha apho ulutsha oluninzi luqala ukusebenzisa utywala kwaye xa ukusela kunye nokuzinkcinkca kusela. I itafile ishwankathela amaxesha ophuhliso, iinguqulelo, imixholo, imisebenzi, kunye nemiba ephawula iqela lobudala be10-15.

itafile

Amaxesha oPhuculo kunye noTshintsho, umxholo ophambili woPhuculo, kunye neMisebenzi yokuPhuhlisa kunye neMicimbi yaBantwana aBadala 10-15

Ukubonakalisa utshintsho kuQhelo kunye noFikelelo oluPhakathi

Ixesha kunye nexesha leenkqubo ezahlukeneyo zophuhliso ziyahluka ngaphakathi nangaphakathi kwabantu. Olunye utshintsho olwenzeka ebusheni obufikisayo kunye nobuphakathi luhambelana kakhulu nobudala bexesha lokubhalwa kwezinto, njengebakala esikolweni. Olunye utshintsho luhambelana kakhulu nenqanaba lokukhula, njengokufikisa, umdla kubantu besini esahlukileyo, kunye nokubaluleka kwesihlobo.

Ubusasa

Utshintsho kwiipatheni ezifihlakeleyo ze-gonadal steroids ezichaza ukuqala kwexesha lokufikisa ngokubanzi kuqalwa ngeminyaka ye-10. Zihamba kunye notshintsho kwinkqubo ye-nervous central kunye ne-neurophysiology kunye nokutshintsha okubonakala kakhulu kwinkangeleko yomzimba (umzekelo, ukuphakama, ukwakheka komzimba, kunye nokubonakala kweempawu zesondo zesibini). Nangona kunjalo, ukwahluka okubalulekileyo komntu ngamnye kunye nokwahlukahlukana ngokobuhlanga kunye nobuhlanga kubukho kwezi nkqubo. Umzekelo, ukukhula kwebele kunye ne-pubic hair development kwi-non-Hispanic White amantombazana aqhelekileyo aqala malunga ne-10.5 yobudala, kunye nonyaka ngaphambilana kumantombazana amnyama angengawo ama-Hispanic amnyama, kunye namantombazana ase-Hispanic awela phakathi. Ubudala obuqhelekileyo ekuyeni ngokuhamba kwexesha kamva, buqala ngokujikeleza ubudala kwi-12.5 kumantombazana amhlophe angekho kwi-Hispanic White kunye neenyanga ezimbalwa ngaphambili kumantombazana amnyama angekho kwi-Spanish

Nangona ukukhula komzimba okunxulunyaniswa nokufikisa kwenzeka kamva kumakhwenkwe kunamantombazana, ukwenziwa kwezinto ngokubanzi kwezinye izinto zokufikisa kunokulahlekisa. Kwii-whpps ezingezizo ze-Hispanic Whites, ukuqala kokukhula kweenwele ze-pubic kwafunyanwa kwenzeka kamva kubafana kunamantombazana (12.0 vs 10.6 iminyaka), ngelixa ukuqala kokukhula kwesini kubafana kwenzeka ngaphambili (iminyaka ye-10.0) kunokuqala kwebele uphuhliso lwamantombazana (iminyaka ye-10.4) (Ilanga et al. 2002).

Utshintsho kubuchwephesha bokuphuhla

Ngexesha lokufikisa, uthotho lweenguqu ezenzekileyo kwimisebenzi yobuchopho zenzeka ngengqondo ngenxa yokutshintsha kwehormoni kunye nokufunyanwa kwamava. Ukunyuka kwezinto ezingwevu ezikhoyo ukuya kuthi ga kubudala beminyaka eyi-11 kumantombazana kunye nobudala be-12 kumakhwenkwe kulandelwa kukuhla ngokuthe ngcembe kwevolumu yento egrey kwicortex yecerebral (Giedd et al. 1997, 1999; UGogtay et al. 2004; Sowell et al. 2004; UToga kunye noThompson 2003). Ukwehla kucingelwa ukuba kubangelwa ziinkqubo zophuhliso, ezinje ngokuncitshiswa konxibelelwano lwe-synaptic phakathi kwe-neurons eyaziwa ngokuba yi-dendritic "pruning." Ixesha eliphakathi kweminyaka ye-10 kunye ne-15 iminyaka yobudala ibandakanya ukukhula okubonakalayo kwiinkqubo zokuqonda, kubandakanya ukukwazi ukucwangcisa, ukugcina ulwazi " kwi-intanethi, "ukusombulula imisebenzi eyinkimbinkimbi yokuqonda, kunye nokubonisa ukuzilawula nokulawula inhibitory (I-Luna kunye neSweeney 2004). Okubalulekileyo, iinkqubo zokulawula eziqhubayo ziyaqhubeka ukukhula kakuhle kwiminyaka yobudala be-15, kumashumi amabini umntu.

Abafikisayo baxela ukuhla okungaphezulu kumgangatho wabo weemvakalelo (U-Larson et al. 2002), soloko amava avelayo ngokweemvakalelo ngakumbi, kwaye abonise iziqendu zokuziphatha ezophula umthetho kunesimaphambili (IMoffitt kunye neCaspi 2001). Iipateni zokulala kunye nemigaqo yokuvuselela kwakhona iyatshintsha kakhulu ebusheni, ngotshintsho kwimigudu ye-circadian ekhuthaza abantu ukuba bahlale bephapheme kwaye balale kude kube semva kwemini.UNelson et al. 2002). Olu tshintsho lunxulunyaniswa notshintsho olubanzi kumgaqo wokuziphatha, olunokuthi lubeke umngcipheko ekuphuhlisweni kweendlela ezahlukeneyo zengqondo. Ngapha koko, amaqondo ee-psychopathologies ezininzi, kubandakanya uxinzelelo olukhulu, ukuphazamiseka koxinzelelo lwentlalo, ukuphazamiseka kokuziphatha, kunye nokuphazamiseka kokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi kwanda kakhulu phakathi kweminyaka yokufikisa kwe10-15 (UAngold et al. 1998; UCostello et al. 2002).

Utshintsho kulwalamano loSapho ,ontanga, kunye noBudlelwane bezothando

Olona lwalamano lubaluleke kakhulu kubo bonke abantwana kunye nolutsha lolwabo baneentsapho zabo kunye noontanga babo. Phakathi kweminyaka ye-10 ne-15, olu lwalamano lubalulekileyo luhamba notshintsho olukhulu.

Ulwalamano loSapho

Inkolelo yokuba abantu abancinci bahlukaniswa neentsapho zabo ngexesha lokufikisa ayichanekanga; nangona kunjalo, kucetyisiwe ukuba ukufikelela ekuluvelweni kokuzala kubangela indlela eguqukayo ekhuthaza ukwahlukana nosapho lwendalo (I-Steinberg 1989). Ngaphezu koko, ukwahluka ngokweemvakalelo phakathi kwabantwana nabazali babo kuyanda, ngakumbi phakathi kwabantwana nootata babo (I-Fuligni 1998; I-Steinberg 1988). Abafikisayo abasebancinci bachitha ixesha elincinci kakhulu nabazali babo kunye namanye amalungu osapho, elinokucacisa ukuba kutheni le ngxaki yokuxabana kwabazali ingekonyuki kule minyaka. Ubungakanani bempikiswano, nangona kunjalo, xa zisenzeka, zibonakala ngathi zinkulu (U-Laursen et al. 1998). Ngesi sigaba, abakwishumi elivisayo bafuna inkululeko enkulu ekuhlaleni nakwimvakalelo kunye nethuba lokuzenzela izigqibo (I-smetana 1988). Besiya bechitha ixesha elininzi kunye noontanga (uninzi lwento engafakwanga ngabantu abadala) kwaye bephenjelelwa ngakumbi ngabo. Ukongeza, njengoko amandla abo okucinga ngokucinga enyuka, abafikisayo baba nobuchule bokuphikisana kwaye bagxeka abazali babo, beqiqa ngendlela ebefanele ukuba “ngayo” (UCollins 1990). Zonke ezi nguqu zinokutshintsha imeko yobudlelwane bomzali nomntwana, kodwa kubalulekile ukuba uqaphele ukuba abazali bahlala beyimpembelelo ebalulekileyo kubantwana babo.

Impembelelo zoontanga

Iimpembelelo zontanga ezijikeleze ubudala i-11-13. Eli linqanaba lobudala xa uninzi lwabakwishumi elivisayo baseMelika abakwisikolo esiphakathi.I-Berndt 1979; I-Steinberg kunye neSilverberg 1986) kwaye xa utshintsho olwenziwa rhoqo kwiklasi kunye nexesha elininzi elichithwa ngaphandle kweklasi longeza ukubonakaliswa kwaboontanga. Oontanga bakhe abakwishumi elivisayo, izihlobo, kunye nabanye abasondeleyo badla ngokuba negalelo elingakumbi kuphuhliso lweenkolelo zakhe, indlela aziphethe ngayo, ukhetho lwezinto azonwabisa ngazo, kunye nezinto azithandayo (umzekelo, kwingubo nomculo) kunangaphambili ngaphambi kobudala be-10. Le mpembelelo inokwandisa ukuba semngciphekweni nasekuziphatheni okugwenxa (I-Berndt 1979). Kwelinye icala, abazali, bagcina impembelelo yabo kwimiba esisiseko, enjengonqulo, isimilo, kunye nemfundo.

Abafikisayo abasebancinci abanobudlelwane obunzima kunye neentsapho zabo (umz., Abazali babo bayalawula kakhulu okanye ababandakanyeki nabo) kunokwenzeka ukuba baphethele koontanga (UFuligni kunye ne-Eccles 1993). Abanye bazimisele ukuncama imisebenzi eyakhayo kunye neenkalo zobomi babo ukuze bamkelwe, kwaye bayathandwe, ngoontanga. Oku kungakhokelela ekubeni bazidibanise namaqela angontanga aphambukayo kwaye bazibandakanye nokuziphatha okusemngciphekweni, kubandakanya nokusebenzisa utywala, ngexesha lesikolo esiphakamileyo (UFuligni et al. 2001). Ewe kunjalo, amaqela abahlobo kunye namaqela oontanga ahlukeneyo kakhulu (Brown 1990), kwaye ayingawo onke amaqela abafundi abakwishumi elivisayo abandakanyeka ekuziphatheni okuyingozi.

Ukubandakanyeka koontanga kunye noKutshintsha kwexesha

Ukwanda kokubandakanyeka koontanga kuyahambelana kunye nenqanaba lokuvuthwa kwe-pubertal. Ngelixa oku kwenzeka ngokwesiqhelo phakathi kweminyaka ye-10 ne-15, kukho umahluko onokuthathwa kwitempo kunye nexesha lokufikisa. Ukufikelela kokukhula kokuzala kunye nokuvela kweempawu zesondo zesibini ezahlula eli xesha kunokuba ngumthombo wokuthandwa kunye nenqanaba kunye nokuzazi nokuzikhathalela njengoko ulutsha lutshintsha kwimizimba yabo ekhulayo kwaye luzithelekise nabanye. Umzekelo, uphononongo lubonise ukuba amantombazana akhule kwangoko aye anyusa umngcipheko weengxaki zangaphakathi (okt, uxinzelelo okanye uxinzelelo). Kwabanye, oku kunganxulunyaniswa nokunyuka kwamafutha omzimba ayimfuneko ukuba ukuya esikhathini (UGe et al. 1996; IPeterson 1988). Ukongeza, amanye amantombazana akhula ngokwasekuqaleni asemngciphekweni omkhulu wokufumana imeko yoontanga apho ukuzibandakanya okunjengokusela kwenzeka ngenxa yokudibana namakhwenkwe amadala (Magnusson et al. 1985).

Ubudlelwane bezothando

Ngelixa ukuqalwa kokuthandana kuphenjelelwa sisini, ubuhlanga kunye nenkolo (UCollins 2003), phakathi kwezinye izinto, abafikisayo eUnited States baqala ukuthandana kwiminyaka eyi-13 okanye ye-14. Ukufikisa-kufikisa kwinqanaba lokufikisa kucingelwa ukuba kubaluleke kakhulu ngokwasentlalweni nangokwendlela yokuchitha ixesha nabahlobo. Okubi ngakumbi kunye nokuhlala ubudlelwane bezothando zihlala zikhula kamva ebusheni.

Ngokomyinge, ulutsha lwanamhlanje lubandakanyeka kwisondo kwasekuqaleni kwaye rhoqo kunangaphambili. Njengokuthandana, kukho umahluko obalulekileyo kwisini, kubuzwe, nakwinkolo, kwaye nangona uninzi lolutsha lungazibandakanyi nezokwabelana ngesondo ngaphambi kobudala be-15, abo bakwenzayo banokuba semngciphekweni ophezulu wokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi notywala (URosenthal et al. 1999).

Utshintsho kwiimeko zomzimba nezeSapho kunye nePembelelo yeNtlalontle neNkcubeko

Kwiqela le-10-15-iminyaka yobudala, iinguqu kubume bendalo nokusingqongileyo ziyamangalisa, zibonakalisa ukwanda kwefuthe lokusingqongileyo. Ezinye iimeko zicinga ukuba zibalulekile okanye zincinci kubomi bomntwana ofikisayo kunangaphambili, kanti ezinye zintsha kweli qela labudala. Intsapho kunye nesikolo zihlala ziimeko zomzimba ezibalaseleyo, nangona, njengoko sele kukhankanyiwe, abafikisayo ngokuthe ngcembe bachitha ixesha elincinci nabazali babo, umkhwa oqhubeka kwisikolo esiphakamileyo. Phakathi kwabafana, ixesha nabazali kunye neentsapho kuthathelwa indawo lixesha lokuchitha lilodwa kwaye, phakathi kwamantombazana, ngexesha kuphela kunye nabahlobo (I-Larson kunye neRichards 1991).

Uninzi lwabantwana eUnited States, ukufikisa kwinqanaba lokufikisa kusuka kwisikolo samabanga aphantsi ukuya kwisikolo esiphakathi okanye esiphantsi. Kwabaninzi, ukutshintsha izikolo kuphela kunokubangela uxinzelelo. Ukongeza koxinzelelo, imeko yemihla ngemihla yesikolo esiphakathi yohluke kakhulu kunesikolo samabanga aphantsi (I-Eccles et al. 1993; I-Simmons kunye ne-Blyth 1987). Ngenxa yezikolo ezikhulu kunye nemizimba yabafundi, iiklasi ezininzi kunye nootitshala, ukubekwa kwinqanaba elinamandla, uvavanyo lokuthelekisa intsebenzo, ukufundiswa okuncinci, kunye namanqanaba asezantsi okunxibelelana kwabafundi kunye notitshala, uninzi lwabantwana abafikisayo abaselula bafumana ilahleko yenkuthazo enxulumene nesikolo. Ukunamathela kwabo kwisikolo sabo kunye nenzondelelo yabo ngezinto ezifundwayo kuyaphumelela. Kwelinye icala, abantu abaselula abaninzi babandakanyeka kakhulu kwimisebenzi yokhetho, njengamaqela ezemidlalo okanye iiklabhu ezizodwa. Le misebenzi ivula indawo entsha ebalulekileyo yontlalontle kunye nabantu abadala abangakhathaleliyo (umzekelo, abaqeqeshi bezemidlalo, iinkokeli zabantu abadala ezinxulumene nesikolo, icawe, okanye amaqela emisebenzi yoluntu, njl. Njl.). Olu tshintsho lwendalo lubeka iimfuno ezintsha kumntwana ofikisayo, ezifuna uhlengahlengiso kunye nokuqonda okukhulu, imvakalelo nolawulo lwentlalo.

Ukufikisa kwabakwishumi elivisayo ngokufuthi kunikwa ukuzimela okukhulu ziintsapho zabo kwaye bangene ngakumbi kwindawo engaphandle kwekhaya. Bachitha ixesha elininzi bebodwa elalini, kwiindawo zemidlalo bhanyabhanya, kwiipaki nakwiindawo ezinkulu zemidlalo (I-Steinberg 1990). Izinto ezinobunzima kwezinye iindawo ezingabamelwane (umzekelo, amanqanaba aphezulu entlupheko, ulwaphulomthetho, kunye nezinto ezenziwayo) zinokuba nefuthe elibi kuphuhliso, ngakumbi ngexesha lokufikisa xa abantwana bevezwa zizinto ngaphandle kokufota okanye ukubeka esweni abazali kunye neentsapho (I-Leventhal kunye ne-Brooks-Gunn 2000). Ifuthe likhulu ngokungabikho kwemisebenzi ekumgangatho ophezulu emva kwesikolo (UPedersen kunye noSeidman 2005). Oku kusenokubangelwa kukuba ulutsha lwakwishumi elivisayo olusebenzisa ixesha elininzi olungabekelwanga mmandla lusengozini yokuvezwa kukufikisa kubudala obudala kunye nabantu abadala abancinci abaziphatha ngendlela eyingozi, enjengotywala kunye nokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi.

Ulutsha lwakuqala lubandakanyeka ekuziboneni ukuba bangobani kwaye bangobani na kulwalamano lwentlalo. Imibuzo ivela malunga nokuziphatha kunye nokulindela u-stylistic oontanga babo kunye noluntu olukhulu olunabo kubo. Ubuhlanga, isini kunye nenkolo ziye zibaluleke ngakumbi njengomthombo wokuzazisa (IPhinney 1990), kwaye, ngokusekwe kwezi zinto, ulutsha lwakwishumi elivisayo lusenokufumana impatho eyahlukileyo kunye nolindelo kwaye banokuzifumana becinezelwe ukuya okanye kude nemisebenzi ethile (Greene et al. 2006). Njengoko abakwishumi elivisayo besilwa nemiba yesazisi, ngokunokwenzeka baya kujongana nokhetho malunga notywala. Isigqibo sokusela sisenokuba yinxalenye yokuzama kwiindima ezahlukeneyo njengoko kusisigqibo sokufumana imiphumo yokuselwa kotywala.

Abafikisayo bachitha ixesha elininzi lomhla wabo befakwe kuhlobo oluthile losasazo olukhulu (ngokomndilili, iiyure ze-6 ukuya kwi-7 iiyure ngemini ye-11- ukuya kwi-15-iminyaka yabantwana) (URobert et al. 2004a). Imithombo yeendaba yimpembelelo ebalulekileyo kwezentlalo nenkcubeko, kwaye ihlala ifumaneka kude kubazali abanamathuba amancinci okanye akukho thuba lokujonga kwabantu abadala, incoko, okanye ukutolika imiyalezo. Uninzi lwabakwishumi elivisayo abasahleli nomabonwakude kwigumbi labo lokulala, kwaye phantse bonke banoluhlobo lwenkqubo yesandi. Bangena kuluhlu lweendaba zosasazo kubantu abakubudala babo kwaye, ukongeza, baya kwimithombo yeendaba eyenzelwe ulutsha oludala. Ngapha koko, eli qela lobudala lihlala lisebenzisa ngaphezu kwesinye ngexesha elinye (umz. Ukumamela umculo ngelixa ukwi-intanethi). Ulutsha luye luchithe iiyure suku ngalunye zisebenzisa itekhnoloji ukunxibelelana nabahlobo babo kunye nokudibana nabo abatsha (umzekelo, ukuthumela imiyalezo, ukuthumela umyalezo kwangoko) (Roberts et al. 2004a,b)

Imiyalezo yotywala ixhaphake kwimithombo yeendaba efikelela kulutsha. Utywala yeyona nto ifaniswa rhoqo nokutya okanye isiselo kumabonwakude. Malunga nesibini kwisithathu seenkqubo eziphambili zentsomi yeTV ebonakalayo isibonisa ukusetyenziswa kotywala kwinqanaba lezenzo ezisibhozo zokusela ngeyure (UMathios et al. 1998). Ngaphezulu kwesinye kwisine seevidiyo kwi-MTV kunye ne-VH-1 zibonisa ukusetyenziswa kotywala; Zombini ezi ziteshi zikamabonwakude zilungele ulutsha lwakuqala (UDuRant et al. 1997). Ulutsha oluhlala luhlala luboniswa ukusela kwimiboniso bhanyabhanya wolutsha, kunqabile ukuba kube nemiphumo emibi (Uhlobo lwe-2005).

Imithombo yemithombo yeendaba ingasebenza njengohlobo “lwentanga entle” yokusetyenziswa kotywala ngokumisela imilinganiselo yokuziphatha kunye nokuziphatha okunxulumene nokusela. Izifundo malunga neziphumo zokujonga ubundlobongela kumabonwakude zinokunceda ekwaziseni ukuqonda kwethu ukuba ulutsha luchaphazeleka njani kukuvezwa kotywala kwimithombo yeendaba. Ezo zifundo zibonise ukuba abakwishumi elivisayo basengozini yokuxelisa indlela yokuziphatha enoburharha ukuba yenziwa ngabalinganiswa abanomtsalane abangafumani ziphumo zibi. Le ndlela inye inokusebenza kwimiboniso emihle yotywala kwimithombo yeendaba. Ukuvezwa kakhulu kumabonakude, iividiyo zomculo, kunye nokuthengisa intengiso yotywala ebusheni kuya kunxulunyaniswa, kwezinye izifundo, kuqalise ukusetyenziswa kotywala kunye nokusela ubhiya obunzima xa bekwishumi elivisayo.UStacey et al. 2004).

Yiya e:

Ukusetyenziswa kotywala kwi10-ukuya kwi-15-yeXesha eliDala

Ukudalwa kotywala

Idatha yesaveyi emele ilizwe lonke malunga nokusetyenziswa kotywala ayifumaneki kubantwana abangaphantsi kweminyaka ye-12. Kwelinye icala, uphononongo oluzimeleyo kuzwelonke luqokelela ulwazi malunga nokuselwa kotywala ngabafundi abakwiminyaka ye-12 nangaphezulu, kubandakanya nokubeka iliso kwiKamva (MTF), uPhando lukaZwelonke ngokuSetyenziswa kweziyobisi kunye nezeMpilo (NSDUH), kunye neNkqubo yokuPhononongwa koMngcipheko woLutsha kuLutsha ( I-YRBSS). Idatha evela kufundo lwe-2005 MTF (UJohnston et al. 2006) ibonisa ukuba i-41.0 ipesenti ye-8th graders ephononongiweyo ibisele isebenzisa utywala ebomini babo, njengoko yayineepesenti ze-63.2 ze-10th graders. Amanqanaba okubalwa kokusetyenziswa kwe-12 yokugqibela kunye neentsuku zokugqibela ze-30 yayiyi-33.9 kunye ne-17.1 ipesenti, ngokulandelanayo, kubafundi be-8th graders kunye ne-56.7 kunye ne-33.2 ipesenti, ngokwahlukeneyo, kubafundi be-10th graders. Iziselo ezinxilisayo ezineempawu (umz. Iialcopops) zibonakala zithandwa leli xesha leminyaka; Ipesenti ye-35.5 ye-8th kunye ne-57.0 ipesenti ye-10th graders ixele ukuba ibadla ixesha elithile ebomini babo.

Ngokwedatha ye-MTF, i-19.5 ipesenti ye-8th graders kunye ne-42.1 ipesenti ye-10th graders ichaze ukuba yayinxila ebomini babo, kwaye i-10.5 ipesenti ye-8th graders kunye ne-21 ipesenti ye-10th graders ichaze ukuba zasela iziselo ezihlanu okanye ezingaphezulu ngexesha elinye kwiiveki zokugqibela ze-2. Ezi datha zibonisa indlela enokubakho yokusela phakathi kwabafikisayo. Ngamanye amagama, xa abantwana abakwishumi elivisayo besela, bahlala besela kakhulu nangona uninzi lwabantu abangaseliyo bengaseli mihla le. Le ndlela yokusela iyingozi kakhulu kwaye inokuthi ichaphazele kakubi impilo kunye nophuhliso.

Idatha yophando olusuka kwi-MTF ikwabonisa ukuba izimo zengqondo kunye nokuqonda kuyatshintsha kulo lonke eli xesha lokufikisa ukuya ekuvumeni okuncinci kotywala. Ukungavunyelwa okunamandla kotywala (enye okanye ezimbini zeziselo) yayiphezulu phakathi kwe8th graders (ipesenti ye-51.2) kodwa iphantsi phakathi kwe-10th graders (ipesenti ye-38.5). Phantse iipesenti ze-57.2 ze-8th graders kunye ne-53.3 ipesenti ye-10th graders zixabisa iiglasi ezintlanu okanye nangaphezulu zotywala kanye okanye kabini ngempelaveki nganye njengomngcipheko omkhulu wokwenzakala. Nangona kunjalo, xa ubuzwa malunga nokuba bacinga kangakanani na abantu abazibeka emngciphekweni wokwenzakalisa (emzimbeni okanye ngezinye iindlela) ngokusela isiselo esinye ukuya kwisibini phantse yonke imihla, ipesenti ye-31.4 ye-8th graders kunye ne-32.6 yepesenti ye10th graders bayilinganise le "njengengozi enkulu." Ukongeza, i-64.2 ipesenti ye-8th graders kunye ne-83.7 ipesenti ye-10th graders ikalwe ngo-alcohol ngokulula okanye kulula kakhulu ukufumana (UJohnston et al. 2006).

Iziphumo zokusetyenziswa gwenxa kotywala kwabaselula

Nangona uphononongo kwiziphumo zokusela kolutsha lungagxili ngokuthe ngqo koluhlu lwabantu abancinci, abanye babandakanya ulutsha oluncinci. Umzekelo, kolunye uphononongo olunje apho iminyaka yobudala yayiyiminyaka ye-16.9, ulutsha lwaxela uluhlu lweziphumo zokusela kwabo, njengokudlula, ukwenza izinto abazisolayo ngazo ngemini elandelayo, nokufumana umlo nomntu abangamaziyo (Ifestile kunye neWindow 2005). Ukuselwa kotywala kulutsha kunokubeka emngciphekweni ukusebenza kwesikolo, kunxulunyaniswe nokutshaya nokusebenzisa iziyobisi ngokungekho mthethweni, kwaye kunokubangela utshintsho kulwakhiwo nomsebenzi wengqondo okhulayo. Ukongeza, ukuqalisa ukusela kwangoko kunxulunyaniswa neengxaki ezizayo, kubandakanya ukuxhomekeka kotywala kunye nokunye ukusebenzisa iziyobisi.Isibonelelo kunye ne-Dawson 1997; ULabouvie et al. 1997).

Ukusetyenziswa kotywala kulutsha olufikisayo nako kunxulunyaniswa neendlela zokuzibulala, kubandakanya umbono, imizamo, kunye nokugqitywa. Idatha evela kuPhando lwezeMpilo lwaBafundi beSizwe (Ifestile et al. 1992) ibonisa ukuba phakathi kwe-10th yebakala lokuthintela ababhinqileyo (okt, abangazange basele utywala kwiintsuku ze-30 ezidlulileyo), i-33.5 ipesenti yayicinga ngokuzibulala kwaye i-12.3 yepesenti yayizamile; phakathi kweziselo ezisakhanyayo (okt, abo basele utywala kwisihlandlo esinye ukuya kwezihlanu ngeentsuku zokugqibela ze-30), i-52.0 ipesenti yayicinga ngokuzibulala kwaye ipesenti ye-21.4 yayizamile; kwaye phakathi kwabasela kakhulu / abasela kakhulu (okt, abo basele kwithuba le-6 okanye ngaphezulu ngeentsuku zokugqibela ze-30) I-63.1 ipesenti yayicinga ngokuzibulala kunye ne-38.8 yepesenti yayizamile.

Ukuselwa kotywala phakathi kolutsha lwakwishumi elivisayo nako kunxulunyaniswa nokuzibandakanya ekulalaneni ngesondo kunye nokuba semngciphekweni ngokwesini (umzekelo, ukuba namaqabane esini amaninzi). Phakathi kolutsha olwabelana ngesondo, i-26.2 ipesenti ye-9th graders kunye ne-21.1 ipesenti ye-10th graders kwisifundo se-YRBS kuxeliwe ngotywala okanye ukusetyenziswa kweziyobisi ngokulala ngokwesondo okokugqibelaI-Eaton et al. 2006).

Ukuziva usemncinci ukuba unxila

Imicimbi yokuziphatha iyakwalela ukuhambisa utywala kubantu abancinci ngeenjongo zophando, ukwenza kube nzima ukuyila izifundo ezivavanya ubuntununtunu bendlela yokufikisa kobuntu. Nangona kunjalo, kuphando olunye olwenziwe kumashumi eminyaka eyadlulayo, amakhwenkwe aneminyaka eyi-8- ukuya kwi-15 anikwa idosi ye-0.5 ml / kg ecocan ethanol, ebanga amanqanaba aphezulu egazi lotywala (ii-BAL) ezazikho ngaphakathi kuluhlu olunxilisayo lwabantu abadala (U-Eckardt et al. 1998). Ukanti, abaphandi (UBehar et al. 1983) akafumananga zimpawu zokunxila kolu lutsha, ephawula ukuba zinguqu ezimbalwa zokuziphatha ziye zenzeka ebantwaneni emva kokuba befumene idosi yotywala eya kubangela ukunxila ebantwini abadala.

Uphando olulandelayo lwezilwanyana lubonelele ngenkxaso yokujonga ukuba ulutsha alunanzondo kwiziphumo zotywala ekuthomalalisweni kwezithuthi. Izifundo zikwabonisa ukuba izilwanyana ezikwishumi elivisayo zibonisa ukunciphisa ubuntununtunu kwezinye iziphumo zotywala ezinokuthi zisebenze njengeendlela zokunciphisa ukusela, kubandakanya ukuthothiswa kwezentlalo kunye ne-sedation (I-Spear kunye neVarlinskaya 2005). Ukongeza, azicacanga kakhulu kwiziphumo ezithile ze-postintoxication "hangover" (UDoremus et al. 2003). Oku kunganikezeli ngotywala kunokubhengezwa ngokukodwa kwinqanaba lokuqala lokufikisa (I-Varlinskaya kunye ne-Spear 2004).

Ngokwahlukileyo kukungakhathaleli kwabo kwiziphumo ezininzi ezinxaxhileyo zotywala, izilwanyana ezikwishumi elivisayo zinobuthathaka kunabantu abadala kwezinye zeziphumo zalo ezonwabisayo, kubandakanya nokuququzelela intlalontle kubonwe kwiidosi ezisezantsi (I-Varlinskaya kunye ne-Spear 2002). Ukuphindaphindeka kwesi siphumo ebantwini kucebisa ukuba ubuntununtunu obuphantsi kwiziphumo ezibi zotywala ezinokuthi zisebenze njengeempawu zabantu abadala ukunciphisa umda wabo, ngokudibana novakalelo olukhulu kwiziphumo zokuzonwabisa zotywala, zingakhuthaza amanqanaba aphakamileyo okusela kulutsha. Esi siphumo sinokuthi, ngokuyinxenye, sichaze amanqanaba aphezulu okusela okuzonwabisa okubonwa kulutsha lwabantu (Ukusetyenziswa gwenxa kweziyobisi kunye noLawulo lweeNkonzo zeMpilo yeNgqondo 2003).

Qaphela, abantu abanembali yosapho enotywala nabo ababuthathi lula ubutywala, obunokuthi buchaze umngcipheko wabo ophezulu wokuxhomekeka kotywala (Schuckit et al. 2004). Kubantwana beziselo ezinxilisayo, oku kungathobisi kunokubeka ingozi yabo kumanqanaba aphezulu okusela kotywala ngexesha lokufikisa.

Ukongeza kwiiyantlukwano kwiziphumo zekhemesti zotywala, izilwanyana ezikwishumi elivisayo zisesichengeni ngakumbi kunabantu abadala kwiziphumo ezinxulumene notywala kwi-plasticity yengqondo kunye nememori (Mhlophe kunye neSwartzwelder 2005), nefuthe lokugqibela elinikwe ingxelo kulutsha lwabantu (UAcheson et al. 1998). Ngapha koko, ubungqina obuvela kwizifundo ezinento yokwenza nokuxinana kotywala bubonisa ukuba ulutsha lubasesichengeni kunokwenzakala kwengqondo kwimimandla ethile, kubandakanya necortex yangaphambili.Crews et al. 2000). Ezi zifundo zibonise ukuba ukubonakaliswa kotywala abakwishumi elivisayo kunokuba nemiphumo engapheliyo kwimisebenzi ye-neural kunye nokuziphatha kwizilwanyana.

Iziphumo ezinxulumene nokuphuhliswa kotywala kunye nokuchazwa

Iziphumo kumanqanaba amaHormone

Uphando lwezilwanyana lubonise ukuba ukusela utywala kulutsha kuchaphazela amanqanaba eehomoni. Umzekelo, ukubonakaliswa kakhulu kotywala ngaphambi kwexesha lokufikisa kukonyusa amanqanaba e-testosterone kwiigundane ezingamadoda (Encinci et al. 1992), ayinampembelelo kumanqanaba e-testosterone ngexesha lokufikisa (Isilumko et al. 1997), kwaye inyanzela amanqanaba e-testosterone kwi-postadolescent kunye nakwiigundane zabantu abadala (Encinci et al. 1992; Isilumko et al. 1997). Uphando lwesilwanyana olongezelelweyo lubonakalisile ukuba ukubonakaliswa okungagungqiyo kotywala ngexesha lokufikisa okunxulumene nokufikisa kwinqanaba lokudibana nokungena kwinqanaba le-pubertal kunye nexesha lokushicilela kodwa iziphumo ziyahluka kubesilisa nakwabasetyhini (UCicero et al. 1990; U-Emanuele et al. 2002; UFerris et al. 1998; UHernandez-Gonzalez kunye noJuarez 2000; Hiney et al. 1999; Dees et al. 1990).

Ubudlelwane bokuxhomekeka kwixa elizayo

Zombini izifundo ezinokubakho kwaye ziphinde zibuyele kwisifundo somntu zibonisa ukuba ukuqalwa kwangoko ukusela kunxulunyaniswa neengxaki zotywala kamva, kubandakanya ukuxhomekeka, kunye nokuxhatshazwa kwezinye izinto (Isibonelelo kunye ne-Dawson 1997; ULabouvie et al. 1997). Umzekelo, kuvavanyo lukazwelonke lubonise ukuba i-40 ipesenti yabantu abaye baxela ukusela ngaphambi kweminyaka ye-15 bakwachaza indlela abaziphuza ngayo ngexesha elithile ebomini babo ngendlela engangqinelaniyo nokufumanisa ukuxhomekeka kotywala xa kuthelekiswa nepesenti ye10 ukuqala ukusela eneminyaka eyi-21 okanye kamva (Isibonelelo kunye ne-Dawson 1997). Akucaci, nangona kunjalo, ukuba ukusetyenziswa kotywala kwangoko kungunobangela ngqo wokusetyenziswa kwengxaki kamva okanye kusebenza njengophawu lwayo.

Izifundo zophando kusetyenziswa iimodeli zezilwanyana sele ziqalisile ukukhangela ukuba ingaba ubudlelwane besizathu obunokubakho phakathi kokuvezwa kotywala kwangoko kunye nokusetyenziswa kotywala kamva kunye nokuba ukubonakaliswa kolutsha kotywala kunemiphumo ehlala ihleli. Ngeli xesha, iziphumo zifunyenwe (I-Spear 2002). Kwezinye izifundo, ukusela utywala ngokuzithandela ngexesha lokufikisa kuchaphazele indlela yokuziphatha enxulumene notywala kwizilwanyana zabantu abadala. Umzekelo, xa izilwanyana zabantu abadala zinikwa ukhetho lwamanzi okanye utywala, bakhetha utywala. Ukongeza, izilwanyana zabantu abadala ezibonisa utywala xa bekwishumi elivisayo zabonisa ukwanda kokuziphatha "okunqwenelekayo", amathuba aphezulu okubuyela kwakhona (McBride et al. 2005), kunye notywala obuninzi bokuphendula uxinzelelo (Siegmund et al. 2005). Kwizilwanyana, ukubonakalisa utywala ngokungapheliyo ebusheni kukwenza unyamezelo olungapheliyo oluthi "lugqibelele" ukunganikezeli okunxulunyaniswa nokufikisaI-Slawecki 2002) kunye nokuthomalalisa imoto (White et al. 2000) Iziphumo zotywala. Oku kunyamezeleka kuyaqhubeka ebuntombini kwaye kunganegalelo kumanqanaba aphezulu otywala abadala.

Uphando lwezilwanyana oluchazwe apha ngasentla lubonisa ukuba kungenzeka ukuba ukubonakalisa utywala kwangoko kungatshintsha iinkqubo zokukhula komntwana, kubangele iziphumo zexesha elide ezandisa ukwanda kokuxhatshazwa kamva. Ngokuhambelana nale hypothesis, izifundo zabantu zibonisa ukuba ukusetyenziswa gwenxa kotywala ngexesha lokufikisa kunxulunyaniswa nokusilela kwengqondo kunye notshintsho kwimisebenzi yobuchopho (UTapert kunye neSchweinsburg 2005) kunye morphologyUDe Bellis et al. 2000). Akucaci ukuba ezi ntsilelo zingasebenzi kakuhle ngenxa yokusela utywala okanye ngaba zazikho ngaphambi kokuqala kokusela kwaye zinokuthi zibe negalelo ekusetyenzisweni kotywala ngokungaginyisi mathe.INtaba 2004).

Yiya e:

Umngcipheko ongaziwayo kwaye iiNjongo eziKhuselayo

Xa ujonga ubudlelwane phakathi kokusetyenziswa kotywala kwangoko kunye neengxaki zotywala kamva, kubandakanya ukuxhomekeka, kubalulekile ukukhumbula ukuba iindlela ezininzi zinokukhokelela ekusetyenzisweni kakubi kotywala. Uluhlu olubanzi lwezinto ezizodwa nezingaqondakaliyo ezandisa umngcipheko wokusetyenziswa kotywala phakathi kwabantwana nolutsha sele zichongiwe.I-Hawkins et al. 1992; Ifestile 1999). Izinto ezingenamngcipheko ziyimpawu ezinokuthi zibe nefuthe kwiindlela ezininzi zengqondo zokuziphatha kunye neengxaki zokuziphatha (umzekelo, ukuphazamiseka kwengxaki yangaphandle kunye noxinzelelo kunye noxinzelelo) ukongeza ekusebenziseni utywala, ukusela ingxaki, kunye nokuphazamiseka kokusebenzisa utywala. Imiba ethile yomngcipheko yile enxulumene ngqo nokusetyenziswa kotywala. Akukho nto ithile okanye into engaqondakaliyo inokuthi ixele kwangaphambili indlela yokuziphatha enxulumene nolutsha. Endaweni yoko, ukudityaniswa kwezinto kuthanda ukuqikelela iziphumo ezinobunzima malunga notywala. Kanye njengokuba kukho umngcipheko omninzi wokusetyenziswa kotywala, kukho uluhlu lwezinto zokukhusela ezidambisa umngcipheko (UWerner kunye noSmith 1992).

IiNgozi zeNgozi ezinobungozi

Impembelelo ezilinganayo zezinto ezingenamngcipheko zomngcipheko (umz., Amandla engqondo, ezengqondo, ezendalo, kunye nezenkcubeko) ziyahluka kubo bonke abantu nangaphakathi komntu omnye ekuhambeni kwexesha.

Ubushushu, ubuntu, kunye neengxaki zokuziphatha kobuntwana

Iimpawu zobushushu kunye nobuntu obunxulumene nokuvuseleleka ngokweemvakalelo kunye nokulawulwa kokuziphatha kubonakale kwangoko, kuphenjelelwa ngemfuza, kwaye zizinzile. Njengakwiminyaka yeqela lokuzalwa le-10 ubudala, inani lezi mpawu, kubandakanywa ubushushu obunobunzima (obuchazwa njengobonisa amanqanaba omsebenzi aphezulu, ukujonga umsebenzi ophantsi, ukuguquguquka, ukujonga kude, kunye nemeko yokuziphatha ephantsi); ukufuna izinto ezintsha ukuxhomekeka kumvuzo ophezulu; ukuthintela ukwenzakala okuphantsi; ubundlobongela; kunye nokuziphatha ngokunganyanzelekanga (umzekelo, umsebenzi otyhafileyo, ukunganyanzelekanga, kunye nobunzima ekuphenduleni) ukuxelwa kwangaphambili kokusela, amanqanaba aphezulu eengxaki zotywala kokubini ebusheni nasebudaleni, kunye nokusetyenziswa gwenxa kweziyobisi nokuphazamiseka kwengqondo kwengqondo (UBrown et al. 1996; UClininger et al. 1988; UDobkin et al. 1995; Johnson et al. 1995; I-Tubman kunye neWindow 1995; I-Zucker 2006).

Izinto zeNtsapho

Iimpawu ezithile zosapho zinxulunyaniswa namanqanaba aphezulu okusetyenziswa kotywala otywala kunye nezinye iindlela zokuziphatha (I-Hawkins et al. 1992). Umzekelo, ukungqubana okukhulu emtshatweni kunye nokungoneliseki kuyinxulunyaniswa nokusetyenziswa kotywala ngakumbi kolutsha (Ifestile 1999). Ngokufanayo, iziganeko zoxinzelelo kunye nobundlobongela kusapho zinxulunyaniswa nokuqala kwangoko ukusetyenziswa kotywala ebusheni kunye nokusetyenziswa rhoqo kunye nokuqinaUWerner kunye noSmith 1992).

I-Dyssynchronies kwiNkqubo yoPhuculo

Uphuhliso oluqhelekileyo lubhekisa kumxholo wokuba iinkqubo ezithile zophuhliso zidla ngokwenzeka ngaphakathi kweminyaka ethile. Uphuhliso olungalunganga lubhekisa kuphuhliso olwahluke ngokweenkcukacha-manani kuninzi lwabalingane abakwiminyaka efanayo / yobudala. Kwinqanaba lobudala elinikiweyo, uninzi umahluko awunakubonakalisa ukulibaziseka okukhulu kophuhliso okanye kunefuthe elibi kwiziphumo ezizayo. Abanye abantu, nangona kunjalo, uphuhliso lwexesha elingelilo linokuba negalelo kwiimpawu ezingezizo. Umzekelo ohambelana notywala obungaphantsi kobudala kukukhula kwangoko ngokwesini kwamanye amantombazana malunga nesihlobo sabo abaninzi. Kwabanye, izakhono zokuqonda kunye nezentlalo zinokuthi zingakhuli kwisantya esifanayo. Ngenxa yoko, la mantombazana aselula, ngokunxulumana namakhwenkwe amadala, anokuzifumana ekwimeko angakulungelanga ukuzisingatha, njengokunyanzelwa ukuba asele okanye azibandakanye nesini.

IiNjongo eziKhuselayo ezingekho mthethweni

Ukudityaniswa okuntsonkothileyo kophuhliso lwebhayiloji, ubudlelwane, kunye nokuma komzimba kunye nentlalo imisela indlela eyahlukileyo yomntu emdala. Njengokuba abantu abakwishumi elivisayo bekhula, badlala indima ebonakalayo ekukhetheni ubudlelwane babo ekuhlaleni kunye nemeko yokomzimba, kwaye ezi zikhetho zonyusa umngcipheko wabo kunye / okanye zokhuselo ekusebenziseni kotywala. Ukuqonda ukuba yintoni edibanisa indlela elungileyo kunye neziphumo kunye nokuba manyathelo mani, kubandakanya nongenelelo, anokuhambisa indlela ezingalunganga kwimbonakalo yophuhliso ibalulekile.

Isimiso

Kanye njengokuba ezinye iimpawu zobushushu zinokuba yimiba yomngcipheko kwindlela yokuziphatha enxulumene notywala, ezinye zinokubakhusela. Kuphononongo olude lwabantwana abaphucukileyo bezentlalo yabazali abanxilisayo, abaphandi baxela ukuba ngobuchule, uthando lweentsana kunye nabantwana abancinci babenomngcipheko wehla kwiziphumo ezinxulumene notywala ebusheni nasebudaleni.UWerner kunye noSmith 1992). Abantwana abanovakalelo olunjalo bacingelwa ukuba bakhulisa amandla kunye nokuxhaswa rhoqo kwezentlalo nangokweemvakalelo, eziya kuthi ziqhubele phambili kuphuhliso oluqinisekileyo.

Ukholo

Ukudakumba kuya kuchongwa njengento ebusayo ngokuqala, kunye nokuqhubela phambili, ukubandakanyeka kakhulu kotywala ebusheni. Nangona kunjalo, inkolo ngeseti ingabonisa ngakumbi ubudlelwane obomeleleyo bosapho kunye nobuhlobo boluntu endaweni yento ekhuselayo ngokwayo.

Iinkalo zokuba ngumzali

Ubushushu obufanelekileyo bokuba ngumzali kunye nokuba ngumzali elungileyo kungamthoba umntwana emngciphekweni wokusetyenziswa gwenxa kotywala. Imimandla emine efanelekileyo yeenkqubo zokukhulisa abantwana ichongiwe, zonke ezinokubonisa inqanaba lokubandakanyeka kwabazali kwaye zinokuba nefuthe kumgangatho apho ulutsha lufezekise ngokwasemthethweni imilinganiselo yobuzali, kubandakanya oku kulandelayo (Ifestile et al. 2008):

  • Ukukhulisa komzali (okt inqanaba lokufudumala ngokweemvakalelo kunye nenkxaso). Amanqanaba aphezulu okondliwa ngokungagungqiyo ahambelana namazinga asezantsi okusetyenziswa kotywala kotywala. Abafikisayo abagqala abazali babo njengabakhathaleleyo, abanenkathalo, kunye nenxaso exhasa ukulibazisa ukuqalisa ukusebenzisa utywala kwaye batye utywala obuncinci kunabo bafikisayo abangavumiyo.
  • Ukubek'esweni komzali (okt ukumisela nokunyanzelisa imigaqo efanelekileyo yokuziphatha kwolutsha). Amanqanaba aphezulu okubeka esweni ahambelana namanqanaba asezantsi asetyenziselwa utywala kotywala. Xa abazali bemisela imigaqo ecacileyo kunye nemida yokuziphatha kwabantwana abafikisayo, njengamaxesha abekelwe ekhaya kunye nenani leeyure zokufunda ngosuku, kwaye xa bekwenza oko ngokuchanekileyo nangokungaguqukiyo, besebenzisa imilinganiselo yokophula imithetho, abakwishumi elivisayo bathambekele ekusebenziseni utywala kamva kunye nokusebenzisa kakubi utywala rhoqo.
  • Ixesha elichithwe kunye. Ixesha elininzi elichithwa kunye lufikisa kwaye nabazali babo banxulunyaniswa namanqanaba asezantsi asebusweni kotywala.
  • Unxibelelwano lwabazali-abakwishumi elivisayo. Unxibelelwano olulungileyo lunxulumene nenqanaba elisezantsi lokusetyenziswa kotywala kotywala.
Yiya e:

Umngcipheko oKhethekileyo woTywala kunye neZinto zokuKhusela

Ngelixa umngcipheko ongaqwalaselwanga ongaphambili kunye nezinto zokhuselo zihambelana neendlela ezininzi zokuziphatha, iingxaki ezizodwa ezinxulumene notywala zinxulumene ngqo nokusetyenziswa kotywala. Iimpawu ezahlukeneyo ezo zichongiwe.

Imbali yosapho lotywala

Imbali yosapho yotywala inokwandisa umngcipheko wokuba likhoboka lotywala kwinzala (Russell 1990). Olunye uphononongo luqikelela ukuba oonyana beziselo ezinxilisayo abangamadoda ziphindwe kane ukuya kwezisithoba amathuba okuphuhliswa kwesifo sokusebenzisa isiselo esinxilisayo (AUD) kunonyana wamadoda angamakhoboka otywala, kanti zona iintombi ziphindwe izihlandlo ezibini ukuya kwezithathu kunokubakho i-AUD. Izifundo zophando kunye neekomidi kunye namawele zichonge imbonakalo yemfuza kwii-AUDs. Imbali yosapho lotywala inxulunyaniswa namanqanaba aphezulu okusebenzisa kotywala kunye nokuziphatha okutenxileyo ekukhulelweni kobuntwana kunye nokuqala kwangaphambili kotywala.

Ukusetyenziswa kotywala ngaphakathi kosapho kunxulunyaniswa nenqanaba lokusetyenziswa kotywala kulutsha ikakhulu xa kugxibha ubukho bendawo ezinzileyo nenokuxhasa imeko yentsapho. Kwiintsapho ezinomzali onotywala, ukungahambisani nokuba ngumzali; imbambano yomtshato; ukuphathwa gadalala kunye nokuhlukunyezwa komntwana; Uxinzelelo ngokubanzi, kubandakanya ubunzima bezemali, zixhaphakile. Ezi zinto zinokuba negalelo ekuseleni kwangoko kunye nokubandakanyeka okuthe kratya kotywala kulutsha olufuna ukubaleka imeko yekhaya. Rhoqo, olu lutsha lukhangela kwiqela loontanga elinxaxhileyo ukubonelela ngenkxaso yentlalo kunye neemvakalelo ezingekho ekhaya.

Impembelelo yaBazala

Uphando lubonisa ukuba abantakwenu abadala bayimizekelo kwaye banokuba nefuthe kwindlela yokuziphatha kotywala kubantwana babo abancinci. Umzekelo, uphononongo kwiintsapho ze508 ezinomntwana oneminyaka eli-11-13 kunye nomntakwenu osele ekhulile oneminyaka eyi-14-18 bafumana unxibelelwano olubalulekileyo phakathi kotywala nobhuti osele ekhulile.Inaliti et al. 1986). Ukuba abantakwenu abadala zange babusebenzisa utywala kunyaka ophelileyo, ngaphezulu kweepesenti ze-90 zabantakwabo abancinci baxela ukuba bebengaseli kunyaka ophelileyo. Ukuba, kwelinye icala, abantakwenu abadala baxele ukusebenzisa utywala i-20 okanye amaxesha angaphezulu kunyaka ophelileyo, ngaphezulu kwepesenti ye-25 yabantakwabo abancinci baxela ukusela.

Iimpawu zoontanga

Iimpembelelo zoontanga zibonakala zibangelwa yinkqubo yokuqala yokukhethwa koontanga abafikisayo kunye nokuzibandakanya okulandelayo kunye neqela. Ukukhethwa koontanga asiyonkqubo engenamkhethe; endaweni yoko, abakwishumi elivisayo bakhetha iqela labalingane elisekwe kwizinto abanomdla kuzo nakwizinto abazenzayo. Ngothotho lonxibelelwano oluntsonkothileyo, banokuhlala beli qela okanye badlulele kwelinye elahlukileyo. Ezi nkqubo ziyafana nokuba umdla oqhelekileyo ubandakanya izinto ezakhayo okanye imisebenzi ephambukayo.

Impembelelo zoontanga zidlala indima ephambili ekusetyenzisweni kotywala kulutsha. Ngapha koko, eli nani okanye ipesenti yabahlobo abasela utywala yeyona nto inokuqikelela ukuba ulutsha lusela utywala. Xa iqela labalingane lilinganisa ngotywala okanye likwenza ukuba likhule, ukusetyenziswa kweqela labanye kuyomelezwa, ngelixa amanye amalungu enokukhetha ukulishiya iqela.

Ukuphuhliswa kwendima kunye nendima yokujongana notywala

Ngokwamava abo, abantu bahlala besiba nolindelo malunga neziphumo zokuziphatha kwabo, kubandakanya nokusela utywala (I-Tolman 1932). Olu lindelo, ekubhekiswe kulo ngoososayensi njengolindelo, indlela yokuziphatha inokuba yinto elungileyo okanye engalunganga, kwaye ivele ngokuhamba kwexesha (IiBolles 1972; IMacCorquodale kunye neMeehl 1953; I-Tolman 1932).

Ukuqaqanjiswa kotywala kukhula kwangoko kunye nemiba ekwakhiweni kokulindelekile kotywala. Kwisifundo esinye, abantwana abancinci ngeminyaka ye-3-5 ababoniswe umfanekiso wabantu abadala abasela isiselo bahlala beqikelela ukuba abantu abadala babusele utywala. Abo bantwana babecinga ukuba abantu abadala ababoniswe ukuba basela isiselo esinxilisayo banokuba semva kweminyaka eyi-9 emva kokuba bezisele (UDonovan et al. 2004). Olunye uphononongo lubonisa ukuba ngokweminyaka ye-9 okanye i-10, uninzi lwabantwana luye lwenza ukuba kulindelwe ekusebenziseni utywala, nto ezo zingenabungozi kwaphela (uDunn noGoldman 1996, 1998, 2000; Kraus et al. 1994; UMiller et al. 1990). Izifundo ezincinci zabantwana abakhulileyo zibonakalise ukuba bathambekele ekuqinisekiseni ukulindela okuhle (uDunn noGoldman 1996, 1998; Kraus et al. 1994; UMiller et al. 1990). Ngaphaya koko, inani lezifundo zibonakalise unxibelelwano phakathi kokulindelweyo malunga notywala ebusheni kunye neendlela zokuziphatha zangoku kunye nezangoku (U-Christianen et al. 1989; UGoldberg et al. 2002; USmith 1994; USmith et al. 1995).

Izinto ezininzi zenza ulindelo lokufikisa kwabantwana abafikisayo, kubandakanya imbali yosapho yotywala, amanqanaba okusela kwabazali, amava okuqala ngotywala, umbono wokusela koontanga, iingcinga ezisoloko zibekwa ngabaseli besiqhelo abafikisayo (okt. Iimbaleki, umfundi odumileyo, ubuze, ubuzwilakhe, njl. Njl.), kunye namava akhe aselwa ngaphambili (U-Oullette et al. 1999; USmith 1994). Uphando nge-preadolescents lubonisa ukuba ukulindeleka kwabo kunokuhlengahlengiswa ngongenelelo olujolisiweyo (UCruz kunye noDunn 2003; Kraus et al. 1994). Izinto zobuntu zinefuthe ekusekweni kwezinto ezilindelekileyo ezinomngcipheko omkhulu (Anderson et al. 2003; McCarthy et al. 2001a,b; USmith kunye no-Anderson 2001; USmith et al. 2006).

Yiya e:

isiphelo

Ithuba elisusela kubudala be-10 ukuya kwi-15 libonakaliswa ngotshintsho olukhulu kwimidlalo yomzimba yokufunda, yokufunda, nolwalamano, kunye nakwinkqubo yezebhayoloji, eyengqondo, eyeemvakalelo kunye neyentlalo. Ngeli xesha lokukhula, umntwana uba ngumntwana ofikisayo, notshintsho kwisikolo samabanga aphantsi ukuya kwisikolo esiphakathi ukuya kwisikolo esiphakamileyo, kwaye kunokwenzeka ukuba angakhange aqalise ukusebenzisa kotywala. Eli nqaku liphonononge ezinye zeenkqubo eziphambili zophuhliso kunye neendlela zeli nqanaba yobudala njengoko zinxulumene nokusetyenziswa kotywala, kubandakanya oontanga, usapho, izinto ezilindelweyo, umngcipheko othile kunye nokungakhathali kunye nokukhusela, kunye nefuthe lokusetyenziswa kotywala kuphuhliso lolutsha. Inqaku elilandelayo nguBrown et al. Ivavanya ixesha elisusela kubudala be-16 ukuya kwi-20, xa utywala bukusebenzisa iziqendu kwaye umntwana lowo usondela ebudaleni.

"Uhlolisiso lubonisa ukuba ukuqala kwesiselo esinxilisayo kunxulunyaniswa neengxaki zotywala kamva, kubandakanya ukuxhomekeka kunye nokusebenzisa gwenxa ezinye izinto."

Yiya e:

Imihlathi

Ukuvezwa kweMali Ababhali bavakalise ukuba abanakukhuphiswano lwezemali.

Yiya e:

I ngcaciso

UMichael Windle, ISebe lezeNzululwazi zeZokuziphatha kunye neMfundo yezeMpilo, iYunivesithi iEmory, iAtlanta, iGeorgia.

ULinda P. Spear, ISebe lezeMpilo yezeengqondo, iYunivesithi yaseBinghamton, iYunivesithi yaseNew York, eBinghamton, eNew York.

U-Andrew J. Fuligni, ISebe lezeengqondo, iYunivesithi yaseCalifornia, eLos Angeles, eCalifornia.

Adrian Angold, ISebe lezeNzululwazi yezeNgqondo kunye neSayensi yeZokuziphatha, iDyunivesithi yaseDuke, iDurham, kuMntla Carolina.

UJane D. Brown, Isikolo seNtatheli kunye nonxibelelwano lweMisa, iYunivesithi yaseNorth Carolina eChapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.

UDaniel Pine, Uphuhliso kunye ne-Neuroscience echaphazelekayo kwiCandelo labantwana kwiCandelo loNyango lweengqondo, iZiko leSizwe lezeMpilo yeNgqondo, iBethesda, Maryland.

UGreg T. Smith, ISebe lezeengqondo, iYunivesithi yaseKentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

UJay Giedd, Ukuqatshelwa kobuchopho kwiCandelo loMntwana kwiCandelo lezeMpilo yeZengqondo, iZiko leSizwe lezeMpilo yeNgqondo, eBethesda, eMaryland.

URonald E. Dahl, Amasebe oNyango lwengqondo kunye neePediatrics, iYunivesithi yasePittsburgh, ePittsburgh, ePennsylvania.

Yiya e:

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