Dev Psychobiol. 2010 Apr;52(3):263-76. doi: 10.1002/dev.20442.
imvelaphi
IZiko leMfundo loMgaqo-nkqubo wase-Annenberg iYunivesithi yasePennsylvania, i202 S. 36th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, e-USA. [imeyile ikhuselwe]
Abstract
Ukwahluka komntu ngamnye ekunyanzelisweni okungaphantsi komgangatho ofanelekileyo womngcipheko uthathwa ngexesha lokufikisa, kwaye ezinye zeendlela eziyingozi kakhulu zokuziphatha zidibene neempawu zokungxamiseki ezibonakalayo ekuqaleni kophuhliso. Nangona kunjalo, ungenelelo lwakwangoko lubonakala lukwazi ukunciphisa ubungqwabalala kunye nefuthe lezi mpawu ngokwandisa ulawulo lwendlela yokuziphatha kunye nokuzingisa kwiinjongo ezixabisekileyo, njengokufezekiswa kwemfundo. Inye indlela yokuphembelela, ukufuna imizwa, ukukhula ngokubonakalayo ngexesha lokufikisa kwaye kwandise umngcipheko kuphuhliso olusempilweni. Nangona kunjalo, uphononongo lobungqina be-hypothesis ethi imida yokuphuhliswa kwengqondo ngexesha lokufikisa ithintele amandla okulawula ukungxamiseki kucebisa ukuba nayiphi na imiqobo enjalo icekeceke. Endaweni yoko, kuxoxwa ukuba ukungabinamava ngokuziphatha kwabantu abadala kubeka emngciphekweni omkhulu ngakumbi kufikelela kwinqanaba lokufikisa kwengqondo. Uphando oluqhubekayo lokuguqulela luya kunceda ekuchongeni iindlela ezikhusela ulutsha njengoko lutshintshela ebudaleni.
Ukusuka - Impembelelo ye-Intanethi ye-Internet kwi-Adolescents: Ukuphononongwa koPhando (2012)
- Ukushokoxeka kolwakhiwo kubuchopho bokufikisa kubantwana abakwishumi elivisayo, kunye nethiyori ezinjengomphumo wokugqwesa kwemifanekiso, zinika ulwazi ngeendlela ulutsha olunokuba semngciphekweni ngokuchasene neziphumo ezibi xa ziveliswa kwizinto ezibonakalayo zesini. Ukongeza, uphando lubonisa ukuba ukungabikho kwamava kunye nokuqhelaniswa nokuziphatha kwabantu abadala kunokubeka umngcipheko omkhulu (Romer, 2010). Kukho ukubaluleka kokudityaniswa kwale mibono, kwaye lo mehluko kwizimvo ugxininisa isidingo sophando olongezelelekileyo malunga nefuthe leephonografi kwingqondo yolufikisa.
Ukukhula okumangalisayo kuphuhliso lwe-neuroscience ekukhuleni kule minyaka ilishumi idlulileyo kuvelise iziphumo ezincomekayo ngokubhekisele phambili ekukhuleni kobuchopho ngexesha lomntwana kunye nokufikisa (UGiedd, Blumenthal, uJeffries, uCastellanos, uLiu, uZijdenbos, et al., 1999; Sowell, Thompson, Tessner, kunye noToga, 2001). Ezona ziphumo zibambekayo zichaphazela uguquko oluvele ngaphambili lwe-cortex (PFC) kunye nemimandla ye-parietal. Kubonakala ngathi ukujikeleza kobudala i-11, i-PFC kunye ne-lobari ye-parietal iqala ixesha lokuthena ixesha elide kwee-axon ze-neuronal ezikhokelela ekunciphiseni kwento egrey cortical. Kwangelo xesha, kubonakala ngathi kukho ukwanda kwe-neuronal myelination. Ukubaluleka kolu tshintsho lwemfundo kusafuneka kusekwe. Nangona kunjalo, uninzi lwabaphandi bathi ukuthena okuthenjisiweyo kwePFC kufanekisela ukukhula okuthe ngqo kolawulo kwindlela yokuziphatha, ukungabikho kwayo okunxulunyaniswa nokunyanzeliswa kunye nokwenza izigqibo gwenxa. Ewe, ulutsha kudala luchazwa njengothambekele ekuthatheni umngcipheko wokuthatha kunye nokuzifaka njengoko kubonakalisiwe ekusebenziseni iziyobisi, ukulimala ngaphandle kwemvume (ngakumbi iingozi zemoto), kunye nezenzo zesondo ezingakhuselekanga (I-Arnett, 1992).
Ngokusekwe kwezi patheni zokuphuhliswa kwengqondo kunye nokuziphatha, abaphandi abavela kwimikhwa eyahlukeneyo bacetyise iinkqubo ezimbini zokuvuthwa kwengqondo ezichaphazela umntwana ofikisayo ukuba azibeke emngciphekweni wokuthatha kunye nokuxhonywa. Inkqubo evelayo kwangethuba ebusheni iqhutywa yimijikelezo yomvuzo wokuya ngaphambili ebandakanya i-ventral striatum (umzekelo, i-nucleus accumbens) (UCasey, uGetz, kunye noGalvan, 2008; Amagumbi, iTaylor, kunye nePotenza, 2003; UGalvan, uHare, uParra, uPenn, uVoss, uGlover, et al., 2006). Ezi setyhula ziqolile kwangoko (I-Fuster, 2002kunye nokukhuthaza umntwana ofikisayo ukuba ahlukane nosapho kunye nokuya ngakumbi kwimidlalo yenoveli kunye nemisebenzi yabantu abadala (I-Spear, 2007). Ayothusi into yokuba uninzi lwale misebenzi lugqunywe ngumngcipheko othile (umzekelo, ukuqhuba, isini).
Kwangelo xesha umntwana afikisayo enza inoveli kunye nemisebenzi enobungozi, kutyholwa ukuba i-PFC ayikakhuli kwinqanaba apho umngcipheko unokuvavanywa ngokufanelekileyo kunye nokulawulwa kokuthathwa komngcipheko kunokukhuseleka ngokwaneleyo ukunqanda iziphumo ezingalunganga. Ngokukodwa, i-PFC kunye nokunxibelelana kwayo neminye imimandla yobuchopho kucingelwa ukuba ayonelanga ngokwendlela ukubonelela ngolawulo olululo kwindlela yokuziphatha yolutsha. Lo msantsa wokukhula kuphuhliso lolawulo olusekwe kwi-PFC malunga nokujikeleza okuqhubela phambili kwezothutho kuthiwa lubangela ixesha elingenakufikelelwa lomngcipheko kulutsha (Icasey et al., 2008; UNelson, Bloom, Cameron, Amaral, Dahl, kunye nePine, 2002; I-Steinberg, i-2008). Ngapha koko, kucetyiswa ukuba ungenelelo ukunciphisa eli xesha lokuba semngciphekweni ngokuqinisekileyo kuya kuba nokusebenza okulinganiselweyo (bona uSteinberg, lo mbandela).
Kweli phepha, ndithetha ukuba eyona mithombo iphambili yokuthatha umngcipheko wolutsha kukuthatha amanyathelo amabini. Enye yeendlela zangaphambili zokungxamiseka ezibonakalayo kwiminyaka yokuqala yobomi (ubuncinci be-3) eqhubeka kwinqanaba lokufikisa. Lo mthombo umngcipheko uyafana Imoffitt's (1993) "Ikhondo lobomi eliqhubekayo" lophuhliso kunye nePatterson's (IPatterson, Reid, kunye neDishion, 1992) Indlela "yokuqala yokuqala". Umthombo wesibini womngcipheko unxulunyaniswa nokunyuka kokuziva ufuna iziphumo ezivela kusebenze kwe-ventral striatum (Iigumbi et al., 2003; I-Spear, 2009). Njengoko sele kuphawuliwe, olu tshintsho lukhuthaza ukulingwa kwinoveli (yokuziphatha yabantu abadala). Nangona kunjalo, endaweni yokumela intsilelo kulwakhiwo lwangaphambili, ezi ndlela zithathe umngcipheko zixoxwa njengezisiphumo sophuhliso oluqhelekileyo kunye nokunqongophala kokungabikho kwamava okunxulumene nokuzibandakanya kwezi ndlela zokuziphatha zenoveli.
Ukuqamba le mpikiswano, kuqala ndijonga ubungqina malunga nokubonakaliswa kwangoko kokunyanzelwa kunye nendlela amava ngexesha lokukhula, ngakumbi iindlela ezahlukeneyo zoxinzelelo, enokucinga ukuba olunye ulutsha luzibandakanye nemisebenzi enobungozi njengoko ziqhubeka kufikelela ebusheni. Obu bungqina bucebisa ukuba owona mthombo ubeka emngciphekweni ngexesha lokufikisa ungunobangela wolawulo lwesiphazamiso olungaphambi kwexesha lokufikisa. Ngenxa yoko, ukuthatha ingozi yomntwana okufikisayo ayisiyonto efanayo, kwaye ukungafani komntu ngamnye kulawula ukuvela kokuziphatha okunje ngexesha lokufikisa.
Ukuboniswa kwangoko koKuthatha uMngcipheko wabaFikisayo
Ngaphandle kokudume ngokuxhaphaka kwabakwishumi elivisayo njengongxamisekileyo kunye nokunqongophala kokulawula ukuqonda, ubungqina ngokubhekisele kule ndlela yokuziphatha bunika umfanekiso ophucukileyo. Ukuba sijonga kwizifundo zakudala ezibonisa ukuba semngciphekweni wokuziphatha, sibona ipatheni engaguqukiyo. Umzekelo, ngokubhekisele ekuzinkcinkca ngotywala, idatha evela kwi-Seattle Social Development Project (Nduli, Mhlophe, Chung, Hawkins, & Catalano, 2000) iboniswe ngaphakathi Umzobo 1 bonisa ukuba endaweni yokubonakalisa ukwanda okufanayo ngalo lonke ixesha lokufikisa, iphethini esebenzayo kule ndlela kukungazibandakanyi kuyo. Malunga ne-70% yolutsha olukwelo cohort aluxelelanga ukusela kakhulu. Kwelinye icala, kukho iqela elincinci lolutsha (i-3%) elibonisa amaxabiso aphezulu okusela ngokuzinkcinkca eneminyaka eyi-13 kwaye anyamezele kulo mkhwa de kufike iminyaka ye-18. Iqela lesithathu lolutsha (i-4%) laqala ukubandakanyeka ekuzinkcinkca ngotywala ngexesha lokufikisa kwaye iqela lesine elikhulu kakhulu (23%) laqala emva kweminyaka yobudala kwi-18.
Indlela yokuziphatha enobundlobongela ngakumbi, ukuxinana emzimbeni, yafundwa ngu I-Nagin neTremblay (1999) kwiqela labo lolutsha lwamaduna kwiindawo ezinobungozi kakhulu eMontreal. Njengoko kubonwe ngaphakathi Umzobo 2, nditsho nakwindawo enomngcipheko omkhulu, uninzi lolutsha (i-17%) aluzange lubandakanyeke ekuziphatheni okukhohlakeleyo. Nangona kunjalo, ulutsha oluninzi olwenze oko besebancinci (80%) lubonisa ukwehla kwezinga lobundlobongela njengoko babegugile. Ezi patheni akukho bungqina bubambekayo kulawulo lobuchopho obuthathaka xa ufikisa. Nangona kunjalo, njengokuzinkcinkca ngotywala, iqela elincinci lolutsha (i-4%) libonise amanqanaba aphezulu okuqhubeka kobuntwana kwasebuntwaneni kwaye aqhubekeka nale meko yokufika ebusheni.
Ezi patheni ziyahambelana nezindululo zikaMoffitt kunye noPatterson zokuba iindlela ezininzi zokuziphatha gwenxa eziyingozi zinemvelaphi yazo kwiminyaka yokuqala ngaphambi kwexesha lokufikisa. Ewe, ezi ntsingiselo zobudala zicebisa ukuba abafikisayo abazibandakanyi ngokufanayo ekuziphatheni okunomngcipheko ophezulu kwaye owona mthombo uphambili wokuthatha umngcipheko wokufikisa ukhona ngaphambi kwexesha lokufikisa. Akumangalisi ke ukuba kunikwe umahluko omkhulu kumngcipheko wokufikisa uthatha inani elincinci leakhawunti yokufikisa kwisabelo esikhulu seendlela ezinobungozi zokuthatha umngcipheko ezibangela inkxalabo malunga nolutsha. Umzekelo, IBiglan kunye neCody (2003) ifumanise ukuba i-18% yobudala lolutsha i-12 ukuya kwi-20 ibalwa malunga nesibini kwisithathu sokuqhuba ngokuxakwa kunye ne-88% yokubanjwa kolwaphulo-mthetho.
Indima yokuNyanzeliswa kokuthatha uMngcipheko kwabaFikisayo
Ubungqina obuqwalaselwayo bucebisa ukuba ulutsha olubandakanyeka ekuthatheni umngcipheko kwangethuba, njengokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi nokuziphatha gwenxa, lubonisa amanqanaba aphezulu okuziphatha okungafunekiyo kwangoko kwiminyaka yobudala ye-3 (UCaspi noSilva, ngo-1995; UCaspi, uHenry, uMcGee, uMoffitt, kunye noSilva, ngo-1995; UCaspi, uMoffitt, uNewman, kunye noSilva, ngo-1996; IMasse kunye neTremblay, ngo-1997; Raine, Reynolds, Venables, Mednick, kunye neFarrington, 1998). Ewe, yonke imbonakalo yangaphandle yokuziphatha ibonakala inxulumene neseti ephambili yempawu ezingxamisekayo (UKreuger et al., 2002) Oku kubonakala kwangoko ekukhuleni (IMcGue, Iacono, kunye neKreuger, 2006). Obu bungqina buxhasa kwakhona umbono wokuba isenzo esihle sengxaki yokuziphatha esibonwa kulutsha lufakwe kwiipesenti ezincinci zolutsha (cf. IBiglan kunye neCody, 2003).
Ekufundeni indima yokuphembelela, nangona kunjalo, kubalulekile ukuba uqonde ukuba utyekelo lubanzi kwaye alubonakalisi njengophawu olunye. Endaweni yoko, kubonakala okungenani kwiifom ezintathu ezinokubakho ezizimeleyo. Olunye uphawu olunjalo, olunokubizwa ukwenza ngaphandle kokucinga, ibonakaliswa kukungakhathali ngaphandle kobungqina bokucingisisa okanye ukujonga imeko yendalo. Kuvavanywa ubuncinci ubuncinci bokulinganisa ingxelo: I-Barratt Impulsivity Scale's motor impulsivity subscale (UPatton, uStanford, kunye noBarratt, ngo-1995) kunye ne-Eysenck I7 isikali (U-Eysenck kunye no-Eysenck, ngo-1985). Xa kuvavanywa ingxelo yababukeli, ibonakaliswa kukungalawuleki kunye noxinzelelo lwezinto ezinobushushu, ezinjengokubonakaliswa ebantwaneni abanononophelo lokungasebenzi kakuhle kwi-hyperactivity (ADHD) (IBarkley, 1997).
Ukwenza ngaphandle kokucinga lujoliso lweenkcazo ze-neurobehaisheral zomngcipheko kwangethuba lweengxaki zokusebenzisa iziyobisi (I-Tarter et al., 2003; I-Zucker, 2006). Abaphandi abasebenzisa uvavanyo lomsebenzi wokuphawula ukujolisa kule meko yokujongwa kwemilinganiselo yokuthintela ukuphendula, enje ngemisebenzi emiqondiso yokumisa (UWilliam, uPonesse, uShachar, uLogan, kunye noTannock, ngo-1999). Le misebenzi ivavanya ubuchule bokubeka esweni ukungqubana kwezenzo kunye nokuthintela iimpendulo zangaphambili xa zingasasebenzi. Kubantwana abancinci, umsebenzi olula ubandakanya ukubeka esweni iindlela ezijolise ekuqwalaseleni (umsebenzi weflanker). Abantwana abane-ADHD benza kakuhle kwimisebenzi enjalo (Vaidya, Bunge, Dudukoric, Zalecki, Elliot, UGabrieli, 2005).
Uhlobo lwesibini lokungxamiseka lubonwa ngokuthanda ukubonisa intswela-monde xa unikwe ukhetho phakathi komvuzo omncinci othe ngqo xa uthelekisa nomvuzo omkhulu kodwa olibazisayo. Ihlala ivavanywa kusetyenziswa iparadigm yesaphulelo sokulibaziseka enokulinganisa ukungafani kukhetho lwembuyekezo elibazisekileyo (I-Ainslie, 1975; I-Rachlin, i-2000). I-Mischel kunye noogxa (1988) usebenzise umsebenzi olula apho abantwana abaneminyaka yobudala eyi-4 banikwe umsebenzi wokulinda ukufumana unyango olilingayo olufana ne-marshmallows. Abo bantwana abanokuthi bazikhanyele i-marshmallow enye ukuze bafumane ezimbini ngexesha elizayo bafumana amanqaku njengobonisa umonde. Ngaphaya koko, abantwana abaye bafumana amanqaku kulo msebenzi baqhubekeka ukubonisa unyamezelo kwizalathio ezinjengokusebenza okuphezulu kwemfundo ngexesha lokufikisa. Olunye uphando lubonisa ukuba abakwishumi elivisayo abangenalo unyamezelo banokuzivavanya ngakumbi kwaye basebenzise iziyobisi (B. Reynolds, 2006; IRomer, iDuckworth, iSznitman, kunye nePaki, ngo-2010).
Njengoko ukusebenza ngaphandle kokucinga kunxulunyaniswa nentsilelo ekusebenzeni okulawulayo, umahluko kwisaphulelo sokulibaziseka kudityaniswa nokwahluka ekusebenzeni kwenkumbulo yokusebenza kunye ne-IQ (UShamosh, uDeYoung, Luhlaza, Reis, Johnson, Conway, et al., 2008). Le ntetho icebisa ukuba abantu abanobuthathaka obuncinci bokugcina iinjongo ezikude kwimemori yokusebenza xa bekhetha phakathi kwembuyekezo ekhawulezileyo kunye nebambezelayo bathanda ukunciphisa isaphulelo sembuyekezo. Umanyano phakathi kokusebenza okubuthathaka kunye nenye yezi ndlela zokunyanzeliswa ayimangalisi xa unokuthi indlela yokuziphatha enganyanzelekanga ihlala ichazwa njengokusilela kolawulo ekuziphatheni.
Ngaphandle kwento yokuba umsebenzi obuthathaka obuthathaka uxhasa ukunganyamezeli nokwenza izinto ngaphandle kokucinga, ubungqina obuvela kuzo zombini izilwanyana kunye neemodeli zabantu zibonisa ukuba ezi ndlela zokuzimela zizimeleyo (IPattij kunye neVanderschuren, ngo-2008; B.Reynolds, uPenfold, kunye noPatak, 2008). Oko kukuthi, abantu ababonisa uhlobo olunye lokunyanzelwa akukho ngaphezulu okanye ngaphantsi kokubonisa enye. Ukongeza, lukhona uhlobo lwesithathu lokungxamiseka oluzimeleyo kwezinye ezimbini (I-Whiteside kunye neLynam, 2001). Umkhwa wokusondela kwinoveli kunye namava amnandi, aziwa ngokuba imvakalelo (I-Zuckerman, 1994) okanye izinto ezintsha (UCloninger, uSigvardsson, kunye noBohman, ngo-1988) Ukufuna, kuphawulwa ngokuhlola inoveli yenkuthazo kunye nomkhwa wokuzama imisebenzi eyonwabisayo ngaphandle komngcipheko onxulumene nazo. Kufunyenwe ukuba inkulu kubantwana ababonisa iindlela zokuqala zobundlongondlongo kunye nezinye iindlela zokuziphatha zangaphandle (Uloliwe et al., 1998).
Kuphononongo olwenziwe ePhiladelphia ngesampulu yoluntu ye-387 yonyaka wolutsha i-10 ukuya kwi-12, mna nabanye oogxa bethu safumanisa ukuba ukunganyanzelekanga njengoko kuvavanywa ngokusebenza ngaphandle kokucinga nokufumana imvakalelo yokucinga yayilulungiso olunamandla lweendlela zangxaki kunye neendlela zokuziphatha eziyingozi (URomer, uBetancourt, uGiannetta, uBrodsky, uFarah, kunye noHurt, 2009). Njengoko kubonwe ngaphakathi Umzobo 3, imodeli yokunyanzeliswa kunye namanyathelo amabini okunyanzeliswa (badibaniswa ngandlela ithile kwisampulu esencinci, r = .30) wakwazi ukucacisa ngokupheleleyo ubudlelwane phakathi kokuziphatha kwengxaki (njengokuziphatha okuchaseneyo kunye neempawu ze-ADHD) kunye nokuthatha umngcipheko (onjalo njengokusela isiselo esinxilisayo, ukungcakaza ngemali, ukulwa, kunye nokutshaya icuba) ngaphandle kobudlelwane nentsalela ebalulekileyo phakathi kwezi zinto zimbini. Olu phononongo luqinisekisa ukubaluleka kweendlela ezimbini zokungxamiseka kokubonakaliswa kokuziphatha okusemngciphekweni kwaye iyahambelana nethiyori ezibeka ugxininiso kwiimpawu zomntwana zokulahla intsholongwane njengokuqikelelwa ngengxaki yokufikisa kwabaselula kunye nokuziphatha okuyingozi (I-Tarter et al., 2003; I-Zucker, 2006).
Indima yoXinzelelo lwaBantwana abaPhambili ekuThatheni abantwana engozini
Ukuqokelela ngokukhawuleza ubungqina obuvela kwi-neuroscience kunye nokuziphatha kwemfuza kugxininisa ukubaluleka kokuvezwa kwangoko koxinzelelo olukhulu kwimpilo kamva. Kukho ubungqina obubonakalayo bokuba uxinzelelo olunzulu, ezo zingapheliyo kwaye ezingekho phantsi kolawulo lomntu, zineziphumo "eziyityhefu" kwiziphumo ezahlukeneyo zempilo (UShonkoff, uBoyce, kunye noMcEwen, ngo-2009). Malunga nokuthatha umngcipheko wokufikisa kwinqanaba lokufikisa, uPhononongo lwaBantwana abaDala (i-ACE) olwenziwe yiCDC (U-Anda et al., 2006; I-Middlebrooks kunye noVavanyo, 2008), ibonisa indlela ukuveza iindlela ezahlukeneyo zoxinzelelo ngexesha lobuntwana kuqikelela ngeendlela ezimbi zokuthatha ingozi. Ngokukodwa, uxinzelelo lwamva nje njengokuxhatshazwa emzimbeni nangokweemvakalelo, ukungahoyi ngokweemvakalelo, ukusetyenziswa kweziyobisi ngabazali, kunye nokuchaphazeleka kubundlobongela ekhaya kwaxhunyaniswa kwiziphumo ezibi kamva zokufikisa kubandakanya ukusetyenziswa kweziyobisi, iziyobisi, kunye nokuzibulala. Ulutsha lwasetyhini, amava okuxhatshazwa ngokwesondo ayehambelana kakhulu nokuvezwa kweminye imithombo yoxinzelelo kwaye wayenxulunyaniswa nobudala bangaphambili ekuqaleni kwezokwabelana ngesondo, kunye nokukhulelwa okungalindelekanga. Ngokubanzi, ngakumbi ama-ACEs, amava amaninzi okukhona eziphatha njengomngcipheko kwinqanaba lokufikisa kunye nobomi kamva.
Uphando nge-primates kunye neempuku lubonelela ngokuqonda malunga nokuba amava amandulo anokubangela njani iimpembelelo zexesha elide kwindlela yokuziphatha enokuvela kwinqanaba lokufikisa. Uphando lukaMeaney kunye nabalingane kwiigundane lubonisa ukuba ukungafani konyango koomama ngaphambi kwexesha kunokuvelisa iziphumo ze-epigenetic kwinzala. Kwimodeli yabo, iintlobo ezilawula iimpendulo zoxinzelelo kwi-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) "ziyathuliswa" zikhokelela ekuphinde kwenzeke kwakhona kuxinzelelo (UMeaney, 2001). Kwigreyidi, oomama abangakhulisiyo ekunyamekeleni kwabo iintsana kunokwenzeka ukuba baveze ezi ziphumo. Ezi ziphumo zibonakala zingenelele phakathi ngokwamanqanaba ancitshisiweyo okusebenza kwe-serotonin kwi-hippocampus. Kukwabonakala kukho iziphumo ezibi kubuchule bendawo kunye nememori eqondwe kukusebenza kwe-hippocampal. Oku kukhokelela ekubeni iimpendulo ezingaphantsi kweyona nto iphambili kumava oxinzelelo kubantwana (UMeaney, 2007).
Esona ziphumo siphawuleka ngakumbi kwezi nkqubo ze-epigenetic kukuba abantwana ababhinqileyo koomama abangabondliyo kunokwenzeka ukuba baziphathe ngendlela efanayo nabantwana babo. Sebenzisa uyilo oluchaza izinto ezinqamlezayo, kunokwenzeka ukuba uqonde ukuba ezi ziphumo zigqithiselwa kwezinye amava endaweni yemfuza. Oko kukuthi, ngamava okuziphatha kwabafazi okuvelisa isiphumo kunokuba kusasazwe imfuzo esuka kumzali iye kumntwana.
Amava okuqala kwiimveku avelisa iziphumo ezifanayo. Uphando lukaSuomi ngeenkawu ze-rhesus ezikhuliswe ngoonina okanye ngoontanga abakhulisayo kakhulu zifumanisa ukuba amadoda akhuliswe ngoontanga abonisa isimilo sangaphandle ebusheni (I-Suomi, 1997). Kuphando olwenziwe nge-rhesus macaque nyani, Maestripieri kunye noogxa bahlolisise iziphumo zokuphathwa gadalala kwabasetyhini kunye nokungahoywa kwabantwana.I-Maestripieri, i-2008). Bafumanisa ukuba ukuphathwa gadalala kwamanina kusasazwa ngokuziphatha kunokuba kunjalo ngemfuza. Ukongeza, bafumana indima ethile yokulamla phakathi kwe-serontonergic ebonakala ikhulisa ukunganyanzeleki kwinzala. Oko kukuthi, inzala ehlukumezekileyo ibonisa amanqanaba asezantsi e-serotonin kwityhefu yomgogodla, isalathiso esiye sanxulunyaniswa nokunyanzeliswa okwandisiweyo (UMcCormack, Newman, Higley, Maestripieri, kunye neSanchez, 2009). Enye inkalo enomdla kolu phando kukuba ulwazelelelo olufutshane lwendalo yespirithi yesyponotiki iphucula iziphumo zokuphathwa gadalala kwababhinqileyo, ukufumana okungangqinelani nophando kubantu abahlangabezana nokuxhatshazwa ngexesha lobuntwana (UCaspi, uSukden, uMoffitt, uTaylor, uCraig, uHarrington, et al., 2003).
Uphando lwabantu lukwacebisa ukuba ukuphathwa gadalala kwangoko ngabazali kunxulunyaniswa neengxaki zokuziphatha kamva. Kuphononongo olude lwabantwana abasemngciphekweni omkhulu ukusuka kubudala be-2 ukuya kwi-8 (Kotch et al., 2008), ukungahoywa komzali ngaphambi kweminyaka yobudala i-2 yayixelwa kwangaphambili malunga nokuziphatha okukhohlakeleyo kwiminyaka eyi-8. Utyeshelo kamva aluzange lubikezele kwangaphambili ukuba nobugwenxa kule minyaka yobudala. Olunye uphando lubonakalise ukuphinda kusebenze okungaqhelekanga kuxinzelelo oluxakwe yi-HPA axis njengesiphumo sokuxhatshazwa kwangoko (I-Tarullo kunye neGunnar, ngo-2006).
Obunye ubunzima bokuvavanya ukucaciswa kwe-epigenetic yokwanda kwe-axis ye-HPA ebantwini kunye nesidingo sokuvavanya izicubu zobuchopho. Kuphando lwamva nje, UMcGowan kunye noogxa (2009) yavavanya izicubu zehippampal kubantu abangasekhoyo abaye bazibulala okanye bafa ngenye indlela. Ngapha koko, abo bafa ngokuzibulala babahlula-hlula malunga nokuba baphathwa gadalala okanye bahoyiwe njengabantwana okanye akunjalo. Ngokwenkcazo ye-epigenetic, abantu abaphathwa gadalala ebantwaneni kufuneka babonise ubungqina obukhulu bokupheliswa kwinzala kwimimandla enxulumene nempendulo yoxinzelelo, kubandakanya ne-hippocampus. Uphononongo lwabo ngokwenene luchonge iziphumo ezinjalo, ngaloo ndlela zibonelela ubungqina bokuqala bemiphumo efanayo ye-epigenetic ebantwini.
Uphando lukaMeaney lubonisa ukuba indlela yokuziphatha koomama nzala ngumsebenzi woxinzelelo olufunyenwe ngumama. Oomama abanamava oxinzelelo oluphezulu baphatha iintsana zabo ngokuzalwa ngokungakondli kangako, inkqubo ebangelwa kukuzikhusela kwindalo esingqongileyo. Nangona oku kunokunika inzuzo ethile kwinzala ngohlobo lokunyanzeliswa, kunokuba yinto eyenzakalisayo ebantwini ngakumbi xa isiphumo sokungaziphathi kakuhle kunye nezinye iimeko zangaphandle ezonyusa umngcipheko wokulimala nokuvalelwa. Ngaphandle kokuthetha, uxinzelelo oluphezulu olufunyanwa ngoomama kunokwenzeka kakhulu ukuba lwenzeke kwiindawo ezisezantsi zentlalo nezoqoqosho apho ukungaqiniseki okujikeleze ukutya kunye nezinye inkxaso kunokuba ngumceli mngeni ngakumbi (U-Evans kunye noKim, ngo-2007).
Utshintsho ekunyanzelweni ngexesha lokufikisa
Izifundo zokuziphatha ngokusemngciphekweni xa usengumntwana kunye nokufikisa zibonisa ukuba ukongeza kwisifundo sokuqala ukuba yinto eqhubekayo kubuntu obufikisayo, kuhlala kukho imeko enye okanye ezingaphezulu ezenzeka ngexesha lokufikisa kunye nokuba mdala. UMoffitt ubhekisa kwezi njengezithintelo zobuntwana abafikisayo kuba bathambekele ekubeni banciphe xa abasebatsha babe ngabadala. Owona mthombo mkhulu wale mibhalo mikhulu kukunyuka kwemizwa yokucinga ebonakala ibonakalisa uninzi lolutsha ngeli xesha lokufikisa. Ukunyuka kokufuna uvakalelo kudibaniswe nokunyuka kokukhutshwa kwe-dopamine kwi-ventral striatum (Iigumbi et al., 2003). I-Spear (2007) ichonge oku njengendawo kwindalo yonke kwizilwanyana ezanyisayo ezibonakala zikhuthaza isilwanyana esakwishumi elivisayo ukuba sishiye usapho kwaye siphume sisebenzisane nontanga ukuze siphonononge intsimi entsha kwaye sikhethe amaqabane.
Siqaphele oku kunyuka kwemvakalelo yokufuna iisampulu zikazwelonke zonyaka wolutsha i-14 ukuya kwi-22 (URomer kunye noHennessy, 2007) (Jonga Umzobo 4). Inqanaba elipheleleyo lokufumana uvakalelo likhulu emadodeni kunababhinqileyo, kwaye amadoda abonisa ixesha elide lokutshintsha kulo mkhwa. Ngelixa ulutsha lwababhinqileyo lulukufikelela kubudala be-16, ulutsha olungamadoda alufikeleli incochoyi yalo de lube malunga nobudala be-19. Oku kunyuka kokufuna uvakalelo kukubonakaliswa kwe-dopaminergic activation ye-nucleus accumbens, inkqubo evuthayo ngexesha lokufikisa. Oku kunyuka kokufuna uvakalelo kudibana ngokumangalisayo neminye iminyaka yobudala esemngciphekweni wokuthathwa, njengokubanjwa kwezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi (jonga Umzobo 5) njengoko kuvavanywa ngokuBek 'esweni isifundo sexesha elizayo (UJohnston, u-O'Malley, uBachman, kunye noSchulenberg, ngo-2006). Ngaphaya koko, umahluko ngamnye kule mikhwa unxibelelene neendlela ezininzi zokuziphatha eziyingozi kubo bobabini abakwishumi elivisayo nakubantu abadala (Roberti, 2004; I-Zuckerman, 1994).
Umbuzo omnye obalulekileyo onxulumene nokunyuka kokufuna uvakalelo ngexesha lokufikisa kukuba ingaba luyayanyaniswa nokunqongophala kolawulo oluphezulu ngokuziphatha njengezinye iindlela zokubonakalisa. Ubungqina buqhekekile kulo mbuzo, kodwa benikwe ulwalamano oluncinci kodwa oluphawulekayo phakathi kokufuna uvakalelo kunye ne-IQ (I-Zuckerman, 1994), kungabonakala ngathi abantu ababonisa uvakalelo olunamandla ngakumbi abafuna ukuqhuba iidrive akukho nto banako ukuyilawula ngokulawula indlela abaziphatha ngayo. Ewe, kwisifundo saseFiladelphia sokukhangela, sifumanisa ukuba umahluko ekufuneni imvakalelo unxulumene kakuhle nokusebenza kwememori yokusebenza (URomer, uBetancourt, uBrodsky, uGiannetta, uYang, kunye noHurt, 2009). Ke ngoko, kubonakala ngathi enye yezona mithombo zinamandla zomngcipheko ukuthatha ubuntwana akunxulunyaniswa nentsilelo ekusebenzeni okulawulayo.
Uphononongo lwakutshanje olwenziwe nguRaine kunye noogxa bakhe (Raine, Moffitt, Caspi, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, kunye neLynam, 2005) ihlolisise umsebenzi we-neurocognitive kwisampula yoluntu yolutsha oluchasayo kwezentlalo kunye nolutsha olunqamlezileyo nolunxaxha. Bafumene inkuthazo yendawo kunye nexesha elide yenkumbulo kulutsha oluchasene nentlalo ehambelana nomsebenzi we-hyppocampal osweleyo ozuzwe kukuphathwa gadalala kwabantwana. Nangona kunjalo, ulutsha olubonisa nje ukunyuka okuncinci kokuziphatha okuchasene noluntu ngexesha lokufikisa bekungafani nolunye olungavukeli ulutsha kwinkoliso yamanyathelo okusebenza kwengqondo.
Indima yokubuzwa ngokuKhangela kuMngcipheko wabaFikisayo
Ngenxa yendima enamandla ovakalelo lokufuna ukuthathwa kwengozi yokufikisa, kuyathakazelisa ukuba ingaba iziphumo zokwenza izigqibo zibandakanya iinkqubo ezahlukeneyo kwezo zisetyenziswa ngabantu abadala. Kwimodeli ecetywayo yakutsha nje yokuthathwa komngcipheko wokufikisa, URomer noHennessy (2007) Ucebise ukuba ifuthe lokufuna uvakalelo luchatshazelwe ziinkqubo ezifanayo nezenza izigqibo zabantu abadala, ezizezi zisetyenzisiweyo njengechaphazela isiseko sokuvavanya ezinye iindlela zokuziphatha. Ngokukodwa, njengoko kucetyisiwe nguSlovic noogxa bakhe (I-Finucan, Alhakami, Slovic, kunye noJohnson, 2000; ISlovic, iFinucane, iPeter, kunye neMacGregor, 2002), into echaphazelekayo heuristic sisigqibo esomeleleyo nesisisigqibo esithembekileyo esixhomekeka kwisimangalo esivumelanayo kwisigqibo sokuphendula njengenqobo yokuvavanya amandla akho embuyekezo. Ngaphaya koko, ukusetyenziswa kwe-heuristic kwazisa ubudlelwane obuphindaphindeneyo phakathi kokuqonda komngcipheko kunye nomvuzo. Oko kukuthi, kokuthandekayo okuchaphazelekayo okunamathiselwe kunketho, umngcipheko omncinci unxulunyaniswa nayo.
Unxibelelwano olugqibeleleyo phakathi komngcipheko nomvuzo kukuphambuka kwimodeli yokukhetha izigqibo apho umngcipheko kunye nemivuzo ivavanywa ngokuzimeleyo. Ewe, umngcipheko kunye nemivuzo ngokubanzi ayihambelani kwihlabathi kwiziphumo ezingaqinisekanga (Islovic et al., 2002). Nangona kunjalo, kubonakala ngathi luphawu ekuthathweni kwezigqibo zethu ukubeka ubudlelwane obungenanto phakathi kwale mikhwa mibini yokhetho. Esi sigqibo sokubala sisenza ukuba siphantsi kwemigangatho ethile yokugweba elawulwa ziimpembelelo ezisebenzayo ekukhetheni isimilo. Ezo zinto sizonwabisayo zidla ngokubonwa njengezinobungozi kunalezo zikhuselekile kodwa zinciphile. Kungoko sithande ukuqhuba iimoto kunokuhamba ngoololiwe nangona, yonke enye into ehlala ihleli, oololiwe bakhuselekile kunezimoto. Nangona kunjalo, umthetheleli ubonelela ngokuthatha izigqibo ngokulula kunokuzijonga ngononophelo zombini umngcipheko kunye nomvuzo uya kufuna.
Ukusuka kumbono wophuhliso lwe-neuroscience, ukusetyenziswa kwempembelelo heuristic yinto enomdla. Kuba ifuna uvavanyo oluncinci kakhulu, inokukhokela indlela yokuziphatha ngaphandle kwesidingo sokulawula kakhulu ukuqonda. Ngenxa yoko, akukho sizathu sigqibeleleyo sokukholelwa ukuba kuya kuxhomekeka kubuninzi beendlela zokulawula ukuqonda ngexesha lokufikisa. Ewe, imimandla ye-PFC esecaleni ethi ichaphazele uhlolo lwayo ngaphambili kunakwimimandla esembindini neyasemva (I-Fuster, 2002) ezifuneka kwimisebenzi emininzi yolawulo (UMiller & Cohen, 2001). Akumangalisi ukuba, xa sijonga umngcipheko wokuziphatha kwabakwishumi elivisayo, sifumanisa ukuba impembelelo zokozeleyo ziyaphila kwaye zikwimeko elungileyo kule ndawo. Ngapha koko, ukusetyenziswa kwayo akubonakali kwahluka kubudala obuphakathi kobudala bokufikisa (iminyaka ye-14) ukuya kubudala bokuqala (ubudala 22) (URomer kunye noHennessy, 2007). Umzekelo, ekuvavanyweni impembelelo ehambelana nokutshaya, ukusela utywala, kunye nokutshaya intsangu, izigqibo zokuziphatha ezichanekileyo kunye nomngcipheko zihambelana ngokunamandla kunye nokwakha into enye ehambelana nokusetyenziswa kwesiyobisi ngasinye. Ewe, izigwebo zomngcipheko azongezi kuqikelelo olubalulekileyo lokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi ngaphaya kokuchaphazeleka okuhle okuxhonywe kwichiza ngalinye.
Olunye uphawu olubalulekileyo lokuthatha ingozi yomntwana ofikisayo yimpembelelo yoontanga. Njengoko kubonwe ngaphakathi Umzobo 6, abo bafuna imvakalelo bangagcini nje ngokuchaphazeleka okunomdla kwinoveli kunye namava amnandi, bafuna abanye abalingane abanomdla ofanayo. Le nkqubo yokuchonga idala imeko yezentlalo engakhuthazi ukuthatha umngcipheko kuphela, kodwa ekwakhuthaza nefuthe elithandekayo elinamathele kumava enoveli. Ngenxa yokuba ulutsha olwahlukileyo kwimvakalelo lufuna ukuhlangana kunye noontanga olufanayo, iziphumo zokufumana kwabo amanqanaba okufumana ziyaqiniswa kukuvezwa kwabanye ngenkqubo yokuchaphazela ugqithiso. Ngenxa yokuba ulutsha olukwiminyaka efanayo ubudala ngamava afanayo okunyuka kweemvakalelo ezifanayo, esi siphumo soontanga siphakamisa umtsalane ohambelana nenoveli kunye nokuziphatha okunomdla njengokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi. Ngenxa yoko, iimpembelelo zokuchaphazeleka ekuziphatheni ziphuculwe ziimpembelelo zoontanga.
Njengoko kubonwe ngaphakathi Umzobo 6, iintsimbi zomendo ezidibanisa izinto ezikwimodeli zibonisa ukuba ukufuna iimvakalelo kunye nokuphembelela koontanga kuguqukele ekuchaphazeleni uvavanyo kwaye kuvelise utshintsho oluninzi kwindlela yokuziphatha kule ndlela kunefuthe lontanga kuphela. Lilonke, chaphazela uvavanyo kunye neempembelelo zoontanga ngaphezulu kwesiqingatha sokwahluka ekusebenziseni icuba, utywala kunye nentsangu. Le mpembelelo ingaphelelanga kwiziphumo kumachiza. Kwisifundo sokungaphumeleli ukusebenzisa amabhanti okuhlala xa ulutsha luhamba ngeemoto, IDunlop neRomer (2009) ifumanise ukuba malunga nesiqingatha sokwahluka kule ndlela yokuziphatha inxulumene nokuchaphazela uvavanyo kunye nefuthe lontanga. Kwimeko apho kunjalo, impembelelo yoontanga yayinamandla ngandlela ithile ngaphandle kokuchaphazela odwa.
Iziphumo zethu malunga neempembelelo zoluvo lokucinga ngomngcipheko wokufikisa kwinqanaba lokufikisa kukucebisa ukuba kunokwenzeka ukuchaza into enkulu yokunyuka kwendlela yokuziphatha eyingozi ngexesha lokufikisa ekwandeni kwale ndlela yokuphembelela. Ngapha koko, iinkqubo zesigqibo ezichatshazelwa kukufuna imizwa ziyafana nezo zisetyenziswa ngabantu abadala. Ewe, ifuthe le-heuristic lifuna ukuqwalaselwa kancinci kwaye ibonakale ngathi iyafumaneka ukusetyenziswa kwasebufyeni ukuba akukho ngaphambili. Okokugqibela, ukujonga imvakalelo akubonakali kubonakalisa intsilelo ekusebenzeni kolawulo njengoko kunjalo nakwezinye iindlela zokunyanzelwa. Ke ngoko, abukho ubungqina obuncinci obucacisa ukuba umngcipheko wokuthatha okuhambelana nokufuna imvakalelo ubonakalisa intsilelo kuvutho lwengqondo lwe-PFC.
Ngaba bukhona ubungqina malunga nokuLungiswa kweBongo kunye nokuLufumana kuMngcipheko?
Ubungqina esibuhlolisisile bubonisa ukuba ukuthatha umngcipheko kulutsha akuyona into eqhubekayo kwaye umahluko ngamnye unxulumene nobuncinci beentlobo ezintathu zokuzifaka kwimeko yokuziphatha kolutsha. Ngaphaya koko, ubuncinci iindlela ezimbini zokungenelela zinxulunyaniswa nomsebenzi otyhafileyo ongenamandla njengoko kuvavanywa umsebenzi wokukhumbula kunye nemisebenzi yokuthintela impendulo. Nangona kunjalo, ukujonga imvakalelo akubonakali kunxibelelene nayo nayiphi na yale misebenzi yolawulo kwaye inokubakho kunxibelelene ngokuqinisekileyo nokukwazi ukusebenza kwememori yokusebenza. Nangona kunjalo, ikwimeko yokuba ulawulo lwengqondo njengokuvavanywa ngokusebenza kwememori kunye nokuphendula kwimisebenzi yokuthintela iyaqhubeka ukuphucula ngexesha lokufikisa (I-Bunge kunye neCron, 2009; I-Spear, 2009; UWilliam, uPonesse, uShachar, uLogan, kunye noTannock, ngo-1999). Ngaba olutshintsho kwimfundo lubonisa ukutshintsha kwimo yobuchopho ebeka umda kulawulo lokuqonda kwengqondo yokufikisa xa uthatha umngcipheko?
Akukho bungqina bucacileyo bokuxhasa ubudlelwane phakathi kokuvuthwa kwendalo kulwakhiwo lobuchopho ngexesha lokufikisa kunye nokuziphatha okungxamisekileyo. Oku kungenxa yokuba kunzima ukujonga utshintsho kwindlela yobuchopho obunokuthi bube nempembelelo ekuziphatheni okunganyanzelekanga. Njengoko kuphawuliwe UGalvan et al., 2006:
Izifundo ze-Neuroimaging azinakuphawula ngokucacileyo indlela yotshintsho oluqhubayo (umzekelo, ukuthenwa kwe-synaptic, myelination). Nangona kunjalo, ezi zixa zevolumu kunye notshintsho lwakhiwo zinokubonakalisa ukucokiswa kunye nokulungiswa kakuhle kweengqikelelo zokubuyiswa kwezi ngingqi zengqondo (PFC kunye ne-striatum) ngexesha lokuvuthwa. Ke ngoko, le toliki icingelwayo kuphela. (6885)
U-Lu no-Sowell (2009) Iphonononge into eyaziwayo malunga nonxibelelwano phakathi kokutshintsha kobume bobuchopho ngexesha lokuphuhlisa kunye nokusebenza kwizakhono zokuqonda kunye nezemoto. Isishwankathelo sabo asiboneleli bungqina buninzi bokucekeceka kwecunicic pruning ekhokelela kwintsebenzo yengqondo ephuculweyo. Umzekelo, ukubamba i-IQ rhoqo, Ukuthunga kunye noogxa (2004) ifumanise ukuba ukucekeka komthambo ukusuka kubudala i-5 ukuya kwi-11 kudityaniswa nokuphuculwa okukhulu kwesigama, isiphumo esibonakala ngathi siqhutywa kukufunda kunokuba kukuvuthwa kwengqondo. Kwisifundo esivavanya utshintsho kwi-cortical ubukhulu ukusuka kubudala be-7 ukuya kwi-19 njengomsebenzi wamanqanaba ahlukeneyo e-IQ, Shaw kunye noogxa (2006) wafumanisa ukuba abantu abane-IQ ephezulu baqala inkqubo yokuncipha kamva kunalawo ane-IQ eqhelekileyo. Ukuba ucingo lwe-cortical luququzelela ukuphuculwa kwezakhono zokuqonda, ke umntu unokulindela ukuba lwenzeke ngaphambili kwabo bane-IQ ephezulu. Okokugqibela, kwimimandla enxulumene nezakhono zolwimi (i-peri-Sylvan ishiye i-hemisphere), i-cortical ukuqina endaweni yokuncipha kunxulunyaniswe nophuhliso lwezakhono zolwimi (Lu, Leonard, & Thompson, 2007). Ngenxa yoko, ukuthothisa kwecortical akuthethi kuphawu lwezakhono kuyo yonke imimandla yecortex.
Malunga nokutshintsha kwento emhlophe, UBerns, Moore, kunye neCapra (2009) Ukuvavanywa kobudlelwane obuphakathi kwe-myelination kwi-PFC kunye nokuthatha umngcipheko kwithuba lolutsha i-12 ukuya kwi-18. Babambe iminyaka engagungqiyo, bafumanisa ukuba imeko yokuthatha umngcipheko yayikhona ngokuqinisekileyo zidityaniswa nophuhliso lwemicimbi emhlophe. Iyahambelana noku kukufumana, UDeBellis kunye noogxa (2008) ndafumanisa ukuba i-myelination ye-corpus callosum yayiphuculwe ngakumbi kulutsha olunengxaki yotywala kunokulawula ulutsha ngaphandle kweemeko ezinjalo. Ke ngoko, ubungqina bokuxhasa ukulibaziseka kwi-mycination ye-PFC njengemngcipheko wokuziphatha kwengxaki kulutsha ayisiyiyo kwaphela kodwa ngokuchasene noko bekulindelekile.
Xa ushwankathela olu phando, U-Lu no-Sowell (2009) uqaphele ukuba:
Ukulungelelaniswa phakathi kokuhlaziywa morphological kunye nobuchule, nangona kufundisa, kutyhila kuphela unxulumano kwaye akunakucacisa ukubala. I-Neuroscience kufuneka ixhomekeke kwizifundo zezilwanyana zisebenzisa iimvavanyo ezilawulwayo zokuyifunda ukuze ifundele ukuba ngaba ukuvuthwa kwe-morphological kuyenza ukuba ifumane izakhono okanye ukuba nobuchule bokufumana kuqhuba utshintsho lwe-morphological. (19)
Abanye abaphandi bazamile ukuqaphela umahluko ekusebenzeni kwengqondo ngelixa bethatha izigqibo zobungozi ezinokuchonga umahluko onxulumene nobudala ekukhuleni kwengqondo. Ezi zifundo zisebenzise ukusebenza kwemagneti yokucinga (fMRI) yabantu eyahlukileyo ngokobudala ukusuka ebuntwaneni ukuya ebuntombini ngelixa besenza imisebenzi eyahlukeneyo. Nangona kunjalo, iziphumo ngokubhekisele kusebenze kwe-PFC azivelisanga mfanekiso ucacileyo wokuba ukwenziwa kwe-PFC kunxulumene njani nokwenza izigqibo okuyingozi.
Ngokuhambelana nethiyori ebonisa ukuba umngcipheko okhulayo uthatha ngexesha lokufikisa ekufuneni uvakalelo (Iigumbi et al., 2003), UGalvan et al. (2006) ifumanise ukuba iminyaka yeshumi elivisayo (iminyaka eyi-13 ukuya kwi-17) ibonise ukuba phezulu kwe-nukeli yokuqokelela ngaphezulu kokumncinci (ubudala be-7 ukuya kwi-11) okanye abantu abadala (ubudala be-23 ukuya kwi-29) xa belindele umvuzo. Nangona kunjalo, ulutsha aluzange luhluke kubantu abadala kwinqanaba elifanayo ngokubhekisele kwi-orbital frontal cortex (OFC), indawo yecandelo le-PFC. Abantwana babonise impendulo eyomeleleyo kunakwishumi elivisayo okanye abantu abadala. Ezi ziphumo zazinzima ukutolika, nangona kunjalo, zinikezwe ukusetyenziswa kwengca yomvuzo enokuhluka ngokulula kwixabiso lemincili kunye nomdla njengomsebenzi wobudala (umfanekiso wepirati emnandi kwiindlela ezahlukeneyo).
Kwisifundo esibanzi sokusebenza kwengqondo, U-Eshel, uNelson, uBlair, uPine, kunye no-Ernst (2007) Uvavanye imimandla eyahlukeneyo yobuchopho ngaphambi kwexesha lokufikisa (iminyaka ukusuka kwi-9 ukuya kwi-17) kunye nabancinci ukuya kwabadala abadala (ubudala be-20 ukuya kwi-40) ngelixa besenza ukhetho phakathi kokukhetha okwahluka komngcipheko. Ukuthelekisa okuxakileyo kwakuphakathi kokhetho olwalunamathuba aphezulu emivuzo kwiziphumo ezincinci zemali ngokuthelekisa ezo zazinamathuba aphantsi emvuzo kwiziphumo ezikhulu. Kwisigqibo sokuyila esinomdla, abaphandi abagcinanga amaxabiso alindelweyo ezi ntlobo zimbini zokukhetha zihlala zihleli. Ukukhetha enye indlela enomngcipheko bekuhlala kungathandeki xa kuthelekiswa nendlela encinci engenamngcipheko. Bafumanise ukuba abantu abadala bavuselele i-OFC enamandla ngakumbi kunabancinci xa bekhetha ukhetho olunobungozi. Oku kufunyanwa kwathathwa njengobungqina bokusebenza ngakumbi kwe-PFC kubantu abadala. Olunye uguqulelo lolokuba abantu abadala babonisa ukwenziwa kwee-PFC ezinkulu kunabancinci xa besenza izigqibo ezingacetyiswa. Ngokucacileyo, olu phando aluncinci ukuqinisekisa ulawulo lwangaphambili oluphezulu kubantu abadala.
Kuphengululo lwakutshanje kwezi kunye nezinye izifundo ezininzi zisebenzisa i-fMRI ukufumana umahluko ekusebenzeni kwengqondo kuwo onke amaqela ubudala, U-Ernst noHardin (2009) uqaphele ukuba:
Injongo yokucacisa imeko yophuhliso lwe -gengenetic yonyusa ubunzima bolu phando kwaye ifuna ukuba iimodeli zethiyori ziguqise ii-hypotheses kwaye zikhokele kuphuhliso lweparadigms yesilingo sendlela enobulumko benkqubo. (69-70)
Inkxalabo malunga nokunyanzela ii-hypotheses kubaluleke kakhulu xa kuthelekiswa iminyaka eyahlukeneyo engafaniyo kuphela ekukhuleni kwengqondo kodwa kunye namava. Ukunikwa iinkxalabo eziphakanyiswe yi U-Lu no-Sowell (2009), kungabonakala kunzima ukungazihambisi iimpembelelo zamava okwakheka kobuchopho ukusuka kwezobugqwetha bokungaxhomekeki ekufundeni.
Enye indlela ephakanyiswe ngu I-Bunge kunye neCone (2009) kukubonakalisa ngokwahlukileyo kulutsha kulutsha uqeqesho kwimikhono yoqeqesho yokuqonda. Ukuba uqeqesho olufanelekileyo lunokuvelisa izigqibo ezingcono kubantwana abakwishumi elivisayo, luya kuphikisana nengqondo yokuvumisa, enokuqikelela ukuba uqeqesho alunakulunga xa kungekho kuvuthwa kwengqondo okufanelekileyo. Kuba uphando kwiziphumo zamava ngokungathandabuzekiyo luya kongeza ukuqonda kwethu ngendima yokuhlaziywa kohlengahlengiso kunye namava, kukuphanda apho ke.
Ubungqina bokuNokwenzeka kweXabiso kwi-Impulsivity
Ngenxa yoqikelelo oluqilima olusekwe kwimida yokuvuthwa kwengqondo ngexesha lokufikisa, kuyathakazelisa ukufumanisa ukuba amava ayoyisa na ezo zinto zisikelwe umda. Ngokukodwa, xa kunikwe indima ebalulekileyo edlalwa kukungxamiseka xa umntwana ethatha ingozi, ngaba bukho ubungqina bokuba amava anokutshintsha naluphi na uhlobo lokungxamiseka? Nabu ubungqina obucacileyo: Imizekelo emininzi yokungenelela enokutshintsha ukusebenza kwengqondo kwisiphumo sokuba ukungxamiseki kunye nokuthatha umngcipheko okunxulumene kuncitshisiwe. Ukuphononongwa kolu ngenelelo, kuluncedo ukwahlula phakathi kwezinto ezinikezelwa ebuntwaneni kunye nezo ziye zaphumelela kamva ngexesha lokufikisa. Ungenelelo lwabantwana kufuneka luncede ukuthintela iindlela zangaphambi kokuba umntu afune ukuya exesheni ukuba uyekiswa engafakwanga. Ungenelelo ngoncedo kwabakwishumi elivisayo kufanele ukuba lukwazi ukumelana nokunyuka kokufunwa kweemvakalelo kunye nolunye uhlobo lokuziva ungafuneki luvele kwisithuba seshumi sobomi.
Ukungenelela kwangoko
Zimbini iindlela zokungenelela kwangoko eziye zavavanywa ngempumelelo. Omnye ubandakanya ukungenelela kubazali abasemngciphekweni wokuphatha gadalala abantwana babo, ngaloo ndlela uthintele iziphumo ezibi zonyango olunje emntwaneni. Olunye kukungenelela kamva kwiintsapho kunye nabantwana kunye nokuba kukodwa kunye nabantwana kwiimeko zesikolo.
Olunye lolongenelelo ngoncedo kwangethuba kunye nabazali olunempumelelo UDavid Olds kunye noogxa (1998). Le nkqubo ibandakanya ukutyelela umzali olindelekileyo ngaphambi kokuba azalwe kunye nokubonelela ngoqeqesho lokujongana noxinzelelo olunokukhokelela kukungabi ngamava ngokwasemzimbeni komntwana. Njengoko kulindelwe kuphando olushwankathelwe apha ngasentla, abazali abanengxaki yoxinzelelo banokuthi badlulisele amava abo ebantwaneni babo ngendlela yokukhulisa kancinci ukhathalelo. Olu nyango ke ngoko lunokuvelisa ukukhula kwengqondo okungalunganga kubantwana, kukhokelela ekungqanyelweni kakuhle esikolweni kunye nasemva kwexesha lokufikisa. Nangona kunjalo, inkxaso yabazali ngexesha lokutyelelwa ngabazali abanomngcipheko omkhulu kubenza bakwazi ukujongana ngcono noxinzelelo kunye nokunciphisa utyekelo lokudlula kwiimpendulo zoxinzelelo kubantwana. Uvavanyo lwale nkqubo lubonisa ukuba abantwana baqhuba ngcono esikolweni kwaye banamava ezimpawu zengqondo, kubandakanya amazinga aphantsi okuziphatha. Ukongeza, abazali babonisa indlela esempilweni yokuziphatha njengoko abantwana babo bekhula besebafikisa (Izzo, Eckenrode, Smith, Henderson, Cole, Kitzman, et al., 2005). Le nkqubo ijolise kwinkxaso yemanyano inikwe impumelelo yayo ekuthinteleni iziphumo ezibi zabantwana nasekunciphiseni iindleko zexesha elizayo esikolweni, ukuvalelwa, kunye nenkxaso kwezentlalontle.
Ukongeza ekungeneleleni nabazali kwasekuqaleni ebomini bomntwana, kukho ubungqina obukhulayo bokuba iindlela ezithile zoqeqesho lwakwangoko zinokuba nefuthe elihlala lihleli kwindlela yokuziphatha, ngakumbi kwiziphumo zezifundo nakwiindlela ezahlukeneyo zokuziphatha kwangaphandle. Umzekelo, uphononongo lweenkqubo ezinzulu zasesikolweni (A. Reynolds kunye neTempile, 2008), enje ngeProjekthi yeZikolo eziPhakamileyo zoPhakamileyo / zeSchool Perry Preschool kunye neNkqubo yaseChicago yoMzali yaBazali ibonisa ukuba ungenelelo olunjalo luphucula intsebenzo yezifundo, ukugcina abantwana esikolweni, kunye nokunciphisa indlela yokuziphatha yengxaki yokufikisa. Ezi nkqubo zibonakala zinefuthe kubuchule bokuqiqa nakwindlela oziphethe ngayo, njengokuzingisa okukhulu kunye nokuzibamba okunxibelelene nokunganyanzelekanga.
Kuphando lwamva nje olwenziwe nguDayimane kunye noogxa (IDayimane, uBarnett, uTomas, kunye noMunro, 2007), abaphandi bakwazile ukuqeqesha izakhono zabantwana abasaqalayo ezichaphazela imisebenzi yesigqeba esihambelana kakhulu nokusebenza kwezifundo kunye nokuphembelela ukuphazamiseka, njenge-ADHD kunye neengxaki zokuziphatha. Ezi zakhono zifunyenwe zinxulunyaniswa nemisebenzi eyahlukeneyo ye-PFC ephantsi kolawulo lwendlela yokuziphatha, njengokukwazi ukusebenza kwiingcinga kwimemori yokusebenza kunye nokunciphisa ukuphazamiseka kubaphazamisi.
Olunye uphando olwenziwe kubantwana kwiminyaka yamabanga aphantsi lubonisa ukuba iindlela zokulawula iimpembelelo zinokuqeqeshwa ezinokuphucula ukusebenza kwesigqeba kunye nokunciphisa ukungxamiseka (UBarry, kunye noWelsh, 2007; IiRiggs, iGreenberg, iKusche, kunye nePentz, ngo-2006). Enye inkqubo enedatha yokulandela ixesha elide ngumdlalo olungileyo wokuziphatha (UPetras, uKellam, uBrown, uMuthen, uIalongo, kunye noPoduska, ngo-2008). U-Kellam noogxa bakhe bavavanye le nkqubo kwizifundo ezinengeniso ephantsi yokuqala kunye neyesibini kwinqanaba apho ootitshala baqeqeshelwa ukulawula izikhuthazo zokuziphatha okuhle kumagumbi okufundisela. Imivuzo yahanjiswa ngokuhambelana ukuze kuncitshiswe isimilo esiphazamisayo, yandise intsebenziswano, kwaye yongeze ingqalelo emsebenzini wesikolo. Ukulandela idatha kwiminyaka eyi-19 ukuya kwi-21 kuveze imbonakalo yexesha elide kwabo babonisa amanqanaba aphezulu okuziphatha nokungalawuleki ngaphambi kokungenelela. Ngokukodwa, amaqondo okulwa ubuntu obuchasene nentlalo-ntle ahlala esezantsi kwawona mngcipheko ulutsha wokulandela.
Ayifanele kwakhona ilibale ukuba amayeza afunyenwe eluncedo kakhulu ekunciphiseni iimpawu ezinyanzelekileyo kubantwana abane-ADHD. IKlingberg (2009) Icebisa ukuba imithamo emiselweyo yokuphucula inako ukuphucula ukusebenza kwesikhundla ngokubanzi kunye nenkumbulo yokusebenza ngokukodwa kubantwana abaphethwe yi-ADHD kwaye ngokwenza njalo baphucule intsebenzo yabo yezifundo. Kukho ubungqina bokuba ukusebenzisa la mayeza kunokunciphisa ukubakho kokusetyenziswa kwamachiza ngexesha lokufikisa (I-Wilens, iFaraone, iBiederman, kunye neGunawardene, 2003). IKlingberg kunye noogxa bakhe (2005) Iphuhlise umthetho olungiselelwe abantwana abane-ADHD onokuthi uphucule inkumbulo yokusebenza kunye nokunciphisa iimpawu ze-ADHD usebenzisa uqeqesho olusekwe ekhompyutheni. Abathunywa kunye namaqabaneURueda, uRothbart, uMcCandliss, uSaccamanno, kunye noPosner, ngo-2005) Bacebisile kwaye bavavanya iindlela ezifanayo kubantwana abaneengxaki zokuqwalaselwa.
Isishwankathelo, uphando ngongenelelo lwakwangoko lubonisa ukuba uqeqesho olunzulu olujolise ekusebenzeni okuphezulu kunye nezakhono zokuzilawula zinokunciphisa iindlela zokwenza izinto ezinokuthi zithintele ukusebenza esikolweni kwaye zikhokelele kwiziphumo zokungalunganga kwinqanaba lokufikisa. Ezi zicwangciso azinakuba yimpumelelo ukuba iinkqubo zokuvuthwa kwengqondo ngexesha lokufikisa zithintele uhlengahlengiso oluyimpumelelo lokunyuka ekufuneni kwemizwa okanye kolunye ugcino mngcipheko.
Ungenelelo kamva
Ukusikelwa umda kwendawo kuthintela uviwo olunzulu longenelelo kwiminyaka yokufikisa. Nangona kunjalo, bukhona ubungqina obuqaphelekayo bokuba abakwishumi elivisayo banokufunda ukunqanda indlela yokuziphatha engalunganga, ngakumbi ukuba banikwe ulwazi olunxibelelene nokusabela okunempembelelo kwezi ndlela zokuziphatha. Umzekelo, ukulandela umkhondo wokusetyenziswa gwenxa kweziyobisi ukusukela ngo-1974 kuVavanyo lwe-future Study lubonisa ukuba esinye sezona zinto ziqikelela ukusetyenziswa komntu ngamnye kunye nokusetyenziswa gwenxa kweziyobisi kukucinga ukuba iziyobisi ziyingozi kwimpilo kabaniUBachman, uJohnston, kunye no-O'Malley, ngo-1998). Iphulo losasazo alusoloko luphumelela ekudluliseleni olu lwazi ngempumelelo nangona kunjalo. Umzekelo, ezinye iindlela zongenelelo ngoncedo ezixhaswe ngurhulumente ziwudlulise ngaphandle komyalezo umyalezo wokuba ulutsha oluninzi lisebenzisa iziyobisi, umyalezo onokonyusa umbono wokuba oontanga bakho bafumana iziyobisi zinomdla (I-Fishbein, iHolo-Jamieson, iZimmer, von Haeften, kunye neNabi, ngo-2002; IHornik, uJacobsohn, iOrwin, iPiesse, kunye neKalton, ngo-2008). Njengoko sele kukhankanyiwe apha ngasentla, ukuqonda okunjalo kunokonyusa iziphumo ezifanelekileyo ezifanelekileyo kwinjongo yokusetyenziswa kwesiyobisi.
Umzekelo olungileyo wesicwangciso esinokunceda ukuthintela iziphumo ezibi xa uzibandakanya nokuziphatha njengenkqubo yenkqubo yokuqhuba esele yamkelwe ngamazwe amaninzi e-US Esi sicwangciso sisekwe kwimbono yokuba ukuqhuba kukuziphatha okuntsonkothileyo okuthatha amava inkosi. Njengoko kubonwe ngaphakathi Umzobo 7, abaqhubi abakwishumi elivisayo bafumana ukuncipha okukhulu kwezengozi emva kokuqhuba malunga nee-1000 zeemayile (iinyanga ezintandathu ngokomndilili) (UMcCartt, Shabanova, kunye neLeaf, 2003). Ukuba amava okufunda kwasekuqaleni anokufezekiswa phantsi kweemeko ezijongela umngcipheko osezantsi, oko kungawanciphisa amathuba okuba neziphumo ezinobungozi kude kube kufezekisiwe ngaphezulu kokuziphatha. Icebo lokufumana iilayisensi elithweswe izidanga limkelwe ngamazwe amaninzi. Kule nkqubo, abakwishumi elivisayo abanikezelwanga iilayisensi ezigcweleyo de badlule ixesha lokulingwa apho bengakwazi ukuqhuba ebusuku kwaye kufuneka baqhube nomntu omdala. Ubungqina bokusebenza kwesi sicwangciso bubonisa ukuba kunciphisa amaxabiso okwaphuka kunye nokwenzakala kakhulu kwaye oko akwenze ngendlela ephendula kwinani lezithintelo ezikwimo yelizwe (UMorrissey, uGrabowski, uDee, kunye noCampbell, ngo-2006).
Kuphononongo lwakutsha nje lwefuthe lokuziva uziva ngexesha lokufikisa nangokwasekuqaleni (i-14 ukuya kwi-22), mna kunye noogxa bam endifumene ukuba amava okuthatha umngcipheko akhokelela ekunciphiseni ukungabi namonde njengoko kuvavanywa umsebenzi wokuthoba isantya (URomer et al., 2010). Imvakalelo ephezulu yokufuna ulutsha olusebenzisa iziyobisi ngaphezulu kolunye ulutsha lubonise ukwehla kokungakhathali njengoko bekhula. Oku kuncitshiswa kuqhubeke nokusetyenziswa gwenxa kweziyobisi. Olunye ulutsha alukhange lubonise utshintsho kwiindlela zokuphungula xa ufikisa. Olu fundo lubonisa ukuba amava afunyenwe ekuthatheni umngcipheko ogqithisileyo enza ukuba abo bafuna imizwa ephezulu bakhule ngakumbi, into enciphisa ukuthatha umngcipheko. Uphando nolutsha olungaziphathanga kakuhle lucebisa ukuba ukungabi namonde kuyehla ngakumbi kulutsha kunakwabanye (I-Turner kunye nePiquero, 2002). Ke ngoko, ngaphandle kokuthatha umngcipheko omkhulu, uluvo olutsha olufuna ulutsha lunokufunda kwiziphumo zokuziphatha kwaye ekugqibeleni lube nokuphelelwa ngumonde kunontanga babo abasemngciphekweni. Umceli mngeni wophando lokuguqulela elizayo kukuchonga ungenelelo olunokunikezela ngamava afunekayo ukuba ulutsha lutshintshe ekubeni umntu mdala ngelixa bekhusela kwiziphumo ezibi ezinokubeka emngciphekweni impilo yabo ende.
Njengoko kuphawuliwe I-Spear (2009),
Amava enzeka ngexesha lokufikisa angasebenza ukulungelelanisa ubuchopho bokukhula ngendlela ehambelana namava. Kuxhomekeke kuhlobo lwala mava, ixesha labo, kwaye ngenxa yoko iziphumo zabo, oku kulungelelanisa ingqondo kunokujongwa njengethuba, kunye nokuba sesichengeni. (308).
Uphando lwexesha elizayo kufuneka luncede ukwahlulahlula iimpembelelo ezisebenzayo zamava kunye nokuvuthwa kwengqondo. Njengoko bekutshiwo ngaphambili, izifundo ezivavanya ukukhula kwengqondo ngokwakhiwa kunye nokusebenza ngokudibana neenkqubo zoqeqesho eziphucula ubuchule bokuqonda kunye nokuziphatha (umzekelo, inkumbulo yokusebenza) kufuneka ikwazi ukubona indima yamava kumanqanaba ohlukeneyo okumiliselwa kolwakhiwo. Olu phando kufuneka lincedise ekuphuhliseni uqeqesho olunokubonelela ulutsha kumava alufunayo ngelixa kwangaxeshanye ukunciphisa umngcipheko abadibana nawo ukuba bashiye izixhobo zabo.
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