Kuthetsa njuga kumalowera kuyankha kwa midbrain ku zotsatira zosawonongeka (2010)

J Neurosci. 2010 May 5;30(18):6180-7. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5758-09.2010.

Thamangitsani HW1, Clark L.

Zambiri za wolemba

  • 1Sukulu ya Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom.

Kudalirika

Kutchova juga ndi ntchito wamba yomwe imakhala yochita masewera amtundu wa anthu, ndipo DSM 'njuga yamatenda' imawerengedwa ngati mtundu wovuta kwambiri. Pakutchova njuga, osewera amakumana ndi malingaliro osiyanasiyana omwe amalimbikitsa chidwi chambiri cha mwayi wopambana. Zotsatira zaposachedwa kumaganiziridwa kuti zithandizira izi. Tinaonapo m'mbuyomu kuti aphonya amafufuza zodutsa m'maboma kuti azipeza ndalama mu kafukufuku yemwe ali mwa odzipereka (Clark et al. 2009).

Kafukufukuyu adafunafuna kuwonjezera zomwe awonera m'miseche yanthawi zonse ndikuwunikiranso mayankho muubongo. Ochita masewera olimbitsa thupi okwanira makumi awiri, omwe adasinthasintha zochitika zawo kuchokera pakusewera mpaka masewera olimbitsa thupi, adayang'aniridwa pomwe akuchita ntchito yosavuta yopanga makina omwe amapindulitsa nthawi zina, komanso zotsatira zoperewera komanso zosakwaniritsidwa. Mu gulu lonse, zotsatira zaposachedwa zidalumikizidwa ndikuyankha kwakukulu mu ventral striatum, yomwe idalembedwanso ndi ndalama zopindulitsa. Kuopsa kwa kutchova njuga, koyerekeza ndi South Oaks Gossip Screen, kunaneneratu za kuyankhidwa kwakukulu mu dopaminergic midbrain kuzotsatira zaposachedwa. Izi zidapulumuka pakulamulidwa pamakhalidwe oyeserera azachipatala omwe amapezeka mwa otchova njuga nthawi zonse. Kuopsa kwa kutchova juga sikunanenekepo mayankho okhudzana ndi kupambana mu midbrain kapena kwina kulikonse.

Zotsatira izi zikuwonetsa kuti zochitika zaposachedwa kwambiri pamasewera olowera amalandila masewera ogwirizana ndi ubongo mu osewera okhazikika. Kuphatikizana ndi kuuma kwa njuga pakatikati pa njuchi kumatsimikizira kuti zotsatira zoperewera zimathandizira kufalitsa kwa dopamine mu njuga zosapindulitsa, zomwe zimapangitsa kufanana kwa mitsempha pakati pa juga ya pathological ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo.

Keywords: Kutchova juga, Kuzindikira, Kusuta, Dopamine, Striatum, Midbrain

Introduction

Kutchova juga ndi mtundu wa zosangalatsa zomwe zingakhale zopanda ntchito mwa anthu ena: 'njuga zam'magazi' ndi DSM-IV Impulse Control Disorder (Association of Psychiatric Association, 2000) ndi zizindikiro zomwe zimaphatikizapo kusiya ndi kulolerana (Potenza, 2006). Zambiri zomwe zikuwonetsa zikuwonetsa kusintha kwa ma neurobiological mu dongosolo lamaubongo muubongo omwe ali ndi vuto lotchova njuga (Reuter et al., 2005, Tanabe et al., 2007, Potenza, 2008). Mwachitsanzo, kafukufuku wa FMRI wogwiritsa ntchito ntchito yolosera yomwe yapambana komanso ndalama zomwe zawonongeka zidapeza chiwonetsero cha zinthu zokhudzana ndi win mu ventral striatum komanso medial pre mbeleal cortex (PFC) ya otchovera njuga (Reuter et al., 2005). Kusintha kofananako kwafotokozedwera kwa osokoneza bongo (Goldstein et al., 2007, Wrase et al., 2007), ndipo akuganiziridwa kuti akuwonetsa kusokonekera kwa dopaminergic polowetsa izi. Kuphatikizidwa kwa Dopaminergic kutchova juga kumathandizidwa ndi malipoti a kutchova njuga ngati mankhwala omwe amathandizira odwala omwe ali ndi Matenda a Parkinson (Dodd et al., 2005, Steeves et al., 2009).

Kafukufuku wofufuzira zovuta za njuga mpaka pano sanyalanyaza malingaliro ovuta omwe otchova juga amakonda kukumana nawo (Ladouceur ndi Walker, 1996). Pamasewera a mwayi ngati masewera kapena masewera olimbitsa thupi, otchova juga nthawi zambiri amagwiritsa ntchito molakwika luso linalake ('kunyenga kwa ulamuliro') (Langer, 1975). Izi zidziwitso zobisika zimatchuka kwambiri mumatambudziko a njuga (Miller ndi Currie, 2008) ndipo amalimbikitsidwa mwachindunji ndi masewera amtundu wa juga (Griffiths, 1993), kuphatikiza kukhalapo kwa zophonya zapafupi: zotsatira zosapambana zomwe zimakhala projekiti ya jackpot. Zomwe zaphonya pafupi zimatha kupititsa patsogolo kutchova juga ngakhale kuti zolinga zawo sizowina (kutaya) (Kassinove ndi Schare, 2001, Cote et al., 2003). Njira zamakono zomwe zimayambitsa zotsatira zophonya zimayeneranso kumvetsetsa kwamaphunziro olimbikitsira: pa masewera aluso (mwachitsanzo mpira wamiyendo), zoperewera (mwachitsanzo, kumenya positi) zimapereka chidziwitso chokwanira chofuna luso ndikulandila mphotho yomwe ili pafupi, ndipo potero pulogalamu yothandizira yolimbikitsira imagwiritsa ntchito moyenera phindu pazotsatira izi. Komabe, m'masewera mwamwayi, zophonya sizisonyeza kupambana mtsogolo, ndipo kuthekera kwawo kukuwonetsa kuti masewera amtundu wa juga amatha kugwiritsa ntchito ubongo zomwe zimakwaniritsa zinthu mwanzeru (Clark, 2010).

Pogwiritsa ntchito makina olowetsa anthu odzipereka athanzi, tapeza kuti zophonya zimayenderana ndi zochitika zazikulu mu ubongo (ventral striatum, anterior insula) zomwe zimayankha ndalama (Clark et al., 2009). Kafukufukuyu adalipo kuti awonjezere zomwe awonazi mgulu la otchova njuga nthawi zonse. Choyamba, tidafuna kuti tithandizire kupeza kuti zotsatira zakumapeto zimapezanso njira yolandirira mphoto ya ubongo mwa otchova njuga nthawi zonse. Chachiwiri, tinayesetsa kudziwa madera omwe ali munjira imeneyi komwe kugwirako ntchito kwamanjongo kumachitika ndi njuga. Ngakhale maphunziro am'mbuyomu a fMRI adasanthula njuga pogwiritsa ntchito zida zoyendetsera milandu, zimadziwika kwambiri kuti kutchova juga komwe kumakhala kozungulira kumakhala kofanana mwachilengedwe: otchova njuga omwe samakwaniritsa njira za DSM nthawi zambiri amafotokoza mavuto omwe amabwera chifukwa cha njuga (mwachitsanzo ngongole, kusamvana pakati pa ena), ndi izi kuvulaza kumachulukirachulukira ndikutanganidwa ndi kutchova njuga (mwachitsanzo, kuchuluka kwa njuga kapena kuwononga ndalama) (Currie et al., 2006). Kuwonetsa kupitilirabe kwa kutchova juga kosagwirizana, tidagwiritsa ntchito mawu anzeru kuzindikira malo aubongo komwe kuwina- komanso zochitika zokhudzana ndi zosowa zomwe zidanenedweratu ndi kusiyanasiyana kwakumiseche.

Njira

ophunzira

Otchova juga pafupipafupi (n = 24, 3 wamkazi) adalembedwa kudzera kutsatsa. Mitu inayi idasiyidwa pakuwunika chifukwa chakuyenda mopitilira muyeso, ndikusiya kukula kwa gulu la 20 (2 wamkazi). Omwe adachita nawo gawo loyesa fMRI ku Wolfson Brain Imaging Center, Cambridge, UK. Lamuloli lidavomerezedwa ndi Norfolk & Norwich Research Ethics Committee (COREC 06 / Q0101 / 69) ndipo onse odzipereka adapereka chidziwitso cholemba. Odzipereka adabwezeredwa £ 40 kuti athe kutenga nawo mbali, ndipo anali ndi mwayi wopambana ndalama zina pantchitoyo (osadziwika kwa omvera, iyi inali ndalama zokwanira £ 15).

Khalidwe la njuga limayesedwa pogwiritsa ntchito SOGS (Lesieur ndi Blume, 1987), 16-chinthu chodzichitira pawokha chowunikira zizindikiro zazikulu ndi zotsatira zoyipa za njuga (mwachitsanzo, kuthamangitsa, kubwereka ndalama, kunama za njuga, mikangano yabanja). Asanafike pa kujambulidwa, ophunzirawo adakumana ndi zokambirana zokhudzana ndi kuyeserera kwa matenda amisala ndi a postdoctoral psychologist (Zomangamanga Zokambirana ndi a DSM-IV Axis I Kusokonezeka; SCID) (Choyamba ndi al., 1996). Popeza kuphatikiza kwakukulu pakati pa zovuta zotchova njuga ndi mavuto ena azaumoyo (Kessler et al., 2008), tidasankha kulekerera othandizira odwala matenda amisala kuti tisasankhidwe mwachitsanzo. Co-morbidities anali motere: dysthymia ndi / kapena mankhwala okhudzana ndi mankhwala osokoneza bongo (n = 5), chisokonezo chachikulu cha moyo (n = 4), kusokonezeka kwaposachedwa kwamatenda (n = 1), nkhawa kapena kusokonezeka kwa mantha (n = 2 ), kudalira kwa mankhwalawa kwa nthawi yonse ya moyo (n = 3), kumwa mowa mwauchidakwa / kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo (n = 8), kudalira mowa kwamakono (n = 1). Maphunziro atatu anali kulandira mankhwala a psychotropic (antidepressant n = 2, benzodiazepine n = 1). Kuphatikiza apo, urinalysis (SureStep ™, Bedford, UK) patsiku la fMRI scan wapeza mayeso abwino a cannabis (THC) mwa ophunzira a 4. Njira zoyeserera podzidziwitsa zinagwiritsidwa ntchito kutsimikizira zizindikiro zamakono zamisala: Beck Depression Inventory (mtundu 2) (Beck et al., 1996), Beck Anxcare Inventory (BAI) (Beck et al., 1988), Adult ADHD Kudzichitira Wokha Mbiri ((Kessler et al., 2005), Patua Inventory ya zizindikiro za OCD (Burns et al., 1996), ndi Mafunso Ogwiritsa Ntchito Mowa (AUQ) (Townshend ndi Duka, 2002).

Kayendesedwe

Panthawi ya fMRI, maphunziro adamaliza mayeso a 3 a 60 mayeso pa Slot Machine Task (Clark et al., 2009), yokhalitsa pafupifupi mphindi pafupifupi 45. Mitu idachitidwa pantchitoyo (mayesedwe a 10 ndi ma 2 hypothetical wins) asanalowe sikani scanner, ndipo panthawi ya sikani, mayankho adalembetsedwa pogwiritsa ntchito bokosi batani. Kapangidwe kazoyeserera ndi chiwonetsero chawonekera chikuwonetsedwa mkati Chithunzi 1. Pazoyesereratu zilizonse, ma reel awiri amawonetsedwa pazenera, ndi 'payline' yopingasa yowonekera chapakati. Zithunzithunzi zisanu ndi chimodzi zimawonetsedwa pachidindo chilichonse munjira yomweyo. Zithunzithunzi zisanu ndi imodziyo zidasankhidwa kuchokera ku njira zina za 16 kumayambiriro kwa ntchito yofufuza, kukulitsa malingaliro otenga nawo gawo.

Chithunzi 1 

Ntchito Kupanga. Ntchito yopanga makinawo imakhala ndi ma reel awiri, ndi zithunzi zisanu ndi chimodzi zofananira zomwe zikuwonetsedwa kumbuyo kulikonse, ndi 'payline' yopingasa pakati pa zenera. Pamavuto okhala ndi mawonekedwe oyera pazenera (monga akuwonetsera), odzipereka ...

Yesero lililonse limachitika motere: nthawi yakusankha, chimodzi mwazithunzi zisanu ndi chimodzi chimasankhidwa kumanzere (gawo la kusankha; Kutalika kwa 5s). Kutsatira kusankha, kumbuyo kwakumanja kudakulidwa kwa 2.8-6s (gawo lachiyembekezo), ndikusintha kukhala choimirira, kuyambira gawo lazotsatira (Ma 4 adakhazikika). Pamapeto pa kuyesa kulikonse, panali gawo loyeserera loyesa mosinthasintha (2-7s). Mugawo lazotsatira, ngati kumbuyo kwakumanja kudayimitsidwa pazizindikiro zosankhidwa (kutanthauza kuti zithunzi zofananira ziwonetsedwa patsamba lolipira), kupambana kwa £ 0.50 kunaperekedwa; Zotsatira zina zonse sizinapindule. Mayesero pomwe kumbuyo kwakumanja adayimilira malo amodzi pamwambapa kapena pansipa pa payline adasankhidwa kuti 'kufooka'. Mayeso omwe sanapambane pomwe reel idayima mu umodzi mwamalo atatu otsala (mwachitsanzo, malo opitilira imodzi) adasankhidwa kukhala 'amphonya onse'. Pamagawo osankha, pamayesero okhala ndi mawonekedwe oyera pazenera, wophunzirayo adasankha chithunzi cha kusewera pogwiritsa ntchito mabatani awiri kuti adutse mawonekedwe, ndi batani lachitatu kutsimikizira kusankha (mayesero osankhidwa nawo) mkati mwa zenera la 5s. Pazoyeserera zokhala ndi chinsalu chakuda, kompyuta idasankha chizindikiro cha kusewera, ndipo mutuwo unkayenera kutsimikizira kusankha mwa kukanikiza batani lachitatu mkati mwa zenera la 5s (mayeso osankhidwa ndi makompyuta). Ophatikizidwa-nawo (n = 90) ndi mayeso osankhidwa ndi makompyuta (n = 90) adawonetsedwa molamulidwa pseudo-osankhika. Ngati kusankha / kutsimikizira sikunamalizidwe mkati mwa zenera la 5s, meseji ya "Too Late!" Idaperekedwa, ndikutsatiridwa kwa nthawi yoyeserera. Zotsatira zake zidasinthidwa mwachisawawa kuti zitsimikizire kuchuluka kwa ma wins (1 / 6, 30 = $ 15), zaposachedwa (2 / 6, okwana 60) ndikuphonya kwathunthu (3 / 6, whole 90).

Pa mayesero a 1/3, ziwonetsero zodzipangira zidapezeka pamiyeso iwiri panthawi yoyeserera, pogwiritsa ntchito sikelo ya 21-point visual analogue. Pambuyo posankha, maphunziro adavotera "Kodi mumayesa bwanji mwayi wanu wopambana?" ndikutsatira zotsatira, maphunziro adavotera "Mukufuna kupitiliza kusewera masewerawa?". Palibe malire omwe adayikidwapo pamalingaliro amomwemo. Zambiri zochokera pamalingaliro amomwe zidasinthidwa zidasinthidwa kukhala z zovomerezeka, kutengera kutanthawuza kwa munthu aliyense ndi kupatuka kwakanthawi pamlingowu, kuwerengera kusiyanasiyana pakukhazikika pamitu yonse. Mavoti oyeserera adasanthulidwa pogwiritsa ntchito mayeso awiriawiri (a 'mwayi wopambana') ndikuwunika kosiyanasiyana kwamitundu (ya 'kupitiliza kusewera') ndi zotsatira (milingo ya 3: kupambana, kuphonya, kuphonya kwathunthu) ndikuwongolera ( Magawo awiri: otenga nawo mbali, osankhidwa ndi makompyuta) monga zinthu.

Ndondomeko Yoyesezera

Scanning idachitidwa pa HTML TimTrio 3 Tesla magineti pogwiritsa ntchito 32 kagawo kagawo ka axial oblique, pobwereza nthawi ya 2s (TE 30ms, flip angle 78 °, kukula kwa voxel 3.1 x 3.1 × 3.0mm, kukula kwa matrix 64 64mm × 201mm, bandwidth 201Hz / Px). Kuyendetsa katatu kwa mayesero a 2232 kunatsirizidwa (kubwerezeredwa kwa 60), ndikulemba ma 630 ma dummy otayidwa koyambira kuthamanga kulikonse kuti alole zotsatira zofanana. Chithunzithunzi chokhala ndi maginidwe apamwamba okonzanso mofulumira pang'onopang'ono mozama pang'onopang'ono (MP-RAGE) chithunzithunzi chinapezedwa chitatha chida chogwiritsa ntchito pazomwe zimachitika.

Zambiri za FMRI zidasanthulidwa pogwiritsa ntchito SPM5 (Statistical Parametric Mapping, Wellcome department of Cognitive Neurology, London, UK). Kukonzekereratu kumakhala ndi kukonza kwa kagawo ka nthawi, kusintha kwamkati mwa mutu, kusintha kwa malo, ndikuwongolera malo pogwiritsa ntchito 10mm Gaussian kernel. Magawo oyenda aanthu adayesedwa kuti asayende kwambiri (otchedwa> 5mm mkati kuthamanga), zomwe zidapangitsa kuti ophunzira 4 asapezeke (1 wamkazi) pakuwunika konse. Nthawi zowerengera zidasefedwa kwambiri (128s). Ma voliyumu adasinthidwa kukhala ma templates a International Consortium for Brain Mapping (ICBM) omwe ali pafupifupi Talairach & Tournoux (1988) malo, kugwiritsa ntchito matrix kuwerengetsa kusintha chithunzi cha MP-RAGE chosanjika pamutu uliwonse pa ICBM imvi ndi zoyera zoyera.

Canonical hemodynamic reaction function (HRF) idasinthidwa kumayambiriro kwa gawo losankhidwa, gawo lazokonzekera ndi zotsatira zake pamayeso aliwonse, kuti muchepetse kusintha kosadziwika mumapangidwe. Kusanthula mayankho okhudzana ndiubongo, zochitikazo zidagawika m'mitundu yoyesera ya 8, yopanga 2 (chisankho: wochita nawo mbali, osankhidwa ndi makompyuta) ndi 4 (kupambana, kuphonya posachedwa patsamba lakulipira, pafupi-pompo pa mzere wolipira, full-miss) mapangidwe aukadaulo. Magawo oyenda kuchokera ku mayendedwe anaphatikizidwanso mu matrix opangira monga othandizira opanda chidwi. HRF idagwiritsidwa ntchito ngati covariate munjira yofananira, ndipo kuyerekezera kwapadera kunapezeka pa voxel iliyonse, yamtundu uliwonse wa zochitika, kuwonetsa kulimba pakati pa data ndi HRF yovomerezeka. Zithunzi zosiyanitsidwa zidawerengedwa pakati pa kuyerekezera kwapazigawo zochokera pamitundu yosiyanasiyana, ndipo zithunzi zosiyanasiyanazo zidatengedwa ndikuwunikanso zotsatira za gulu lachiwopsezo chachiwiri.

Kusiyanitsa kwakukulu kunawerengedwa kuti kuwunikire mayankho okhudzana ndi ubongo mu gulu lonse la otchova njuga: 1) Zopambana zonse zandalama (mwachitsanzo, onse omwe amatenga nawo mbali komanso mayankho osankhidwa ndi makompyuta) amalephera pazotsatira zonse zomwe sizinapambane. 2) Zakusoweka pafupi (pamavuto onse omwe atenga nawo mbali komanso osankhidwa ndi makompyuta) amatulutsa zotsatira zosowa (pa onse omwe akuchita nawo mayankho omwe asankhidwa ndi makompyuta). 3) Kuphonya mwa kulumikizana pakokha pazokha: madera omwe amalembedwa mosiyanasiyana ndi ziphaso zapafupi poyerekeza ndi zophonya zonse ngati gawo la wopanga nawo mbali motsutsana ndi kuwongolera makompyuta (mwachitsanzo. 1, −1, −1, 1). 4) Zochita zopambana pamayeso osankhidwa ndi ochita nawo omwe amapambana pamayeso osankhidwa ndi kompyuta. Kuti muwone zotsatirazi ngati kugwiraku, magwiridwe antchito anzeru omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi anthu omwe amagwiritsa ntchito kuchuluka kwa SOGS amayendetsedwa pogwiritsa ntchito gawo la SOGS ngati cholosera. Popeza malingaliro athu ofunika okhudzana ndi kufalikira kwa maubwino muubwino wamagetsi ndi zovuta zotchova njuga, tinayambitsa kuwina kotsutsana (ndalama zonse zimapambana zonse zomwe sizili kupambana, zopunthidwa pa p.FWE<.05 yakonzedwa) kuchokera ku kafukufuku wathu wakale (Clark et al., 2009) ngati chophimba pazosiyanazi, komanso kusanthula kwamanja, pogwiritsa ntchito chida cha PickAtlas (Maldjian et al., 2003). Kusanthula kwakaderali komwe kudachitika kudasungidwa p <.05 kukonzedwa poyerekeza kofananira pogwiritsa ntchito malingaliro am'munda mwachisawawa (Worsley et al., 1996), mwachitsanzo, Family Wise Error (FWE) yokonzedwa, ndi njira yolumikizana ya ma 10 voxels kuti muchepetse kuchuluka kwa zilembo zabodza (Forman et al., 1995). Malo opangira tsango awa adasankhidwa pazifukwa zakuti dera laling'ono laling'ono la chidwi (chapbrain substantia nigra / ventral tegmental) lili ndi kukula kofanana ndi ma voxels a 20-25 (Duzel et al., 2009). Kusintha kwachizindikiro kwachotsedwa ku activation yotsogola pogwiritsa ntchito chida cha MARSBAR (Brett et al., 2002) pazolinga zokonza tsambalo. Kusanthula kwaubongo wathunthu kumaperekedwanso pogwiritsa ntchito njira yowunikira ya p <.001 yopanda tanthauzo.

Results

Kusiyanasiyana Pakutchova Juga

Ochita masewera otsogola nthawi zonse anali amuna amuna (n = 18) ali ndi zaka zankhondo za 33.7 (sd 1.8), amatanthauza zaka zamaphunziro a 14.5 (sd 0.5) ndipo amatanthauza kuti IQ ikuyerekeza kwathunthu IQ ya 111.5 (sd 7.3). Mitundu yomwe amakonda kusewera njuga pagulu linali kubetcha (masewera othamanga), koma makina olowera, makadi ndi ma lottery anali ofala (onani. Table Supplementary 1). Onse kupatula mutu umodzi pakadali pano anali otchova juga, omwe amasewera kamodzi pamlungu pamitundu yomwe amakonda; wochita nawo zomwe sanathenso kutchova juga anali atasiya chaka chimodzi. Makumi atatu ndi atatu a gululi adakumana ndi malire a SOGS a> = 5 pazotheka kutchova njuga kwa Pathological (mtundu wonse wa 0-20, kutanthauza 7.25, wapakatikati 6.5) (onani Zowonjezera Chithunzi 1). Kugwiritsa ntchito kwakukulu m'masiku amodzi mosiyanasiyana kuchokera ku $ 10- £ 100 (n = 5), $ 100- £ 1000 (n = 8), $ 1000- £ 10,000 (n = 5), kupitilira $ 10,000 (n = 2 ). Zofotokozera zofotokozera za miyeso yofunsa yazizindikiro zamankhwala zimanenedwa Table Supplementary 2.

Mavoti Othandizira pa Slot Machine Task

Zotsatira zamasankhidwe oti "Kodi mumayesa bwanji mwayi wanu wopambana?" anali okwera kwambiri pamayeso omwe ophunzira amatenga nawo gawo poyerekeza ndi mayesero omwe asankhidwa ndi makompyuta (t (19) = 5.2, p <0.001). Zotsatira zakuwongolera kwanu zidachepetsedwa ngati ntchito yovuta yamtundu wa juga monga momwe amawonera ndi SOGS (r20= -0.53, p = 0.016). Zotsatira za zotsatira za "Kodi mukufuna kupitiliza kusewera ndalama zingati?" adasanthulidwa pogwiritsa ntchito njira ziwiri ANOVA kuwulula zoyipa zazikulu za mayankho (F (2,38) = 40.179, p <0.001), palibe vuto lililonse ku bungwe (F (1,19) <1), ndi bungwe poyankha kuyanjana (F (2,38) = 3.604, p = 0.037) (onani Table Supplementary 3). Zopambana zomwe ophunzira adatenga nawo mbali zidavoteledwa kwambiri kuposa zomwe zidasankhidwa ndi makompyuta (t (19) = 2.199, p = 0.040), koma kuwongolera kwawokha sikunakhudze ziwerengero za omwe angaphonye (t (19) = - 1.272, p = 0.217 ) kapena kusowa kwathunthu (t (19) = - 0.998, p = 0.331) zotsatira. 'Pitirizani kusewera' mavoti anali apamwamba pambuyo pakupambana poyerekeza ndi mtundu uliwonse wosapambana, mosasamala kanthu zaulamuliro waumwini (t (19)> 3.889, p <0.002 munthawi zonse), pomwe zophonya pafupi ndi zoperewera zonse sizinasiyane ndi omwe akutenga nawo mbali -osankha mayesero (t (19) = 1.104, p = 0.283) kapena mayesero osankhidwa ndi makompyuta (t (19) <1). Chifukwa chake, kunalibe zotsatira zodziwikiratu pazotsatira zomwe zaphonya podzinena nokha mwa otchova njuga nthawi zonse.

fMRI Ikuyankha Zotsatira Za Kutchova Juga

Madera aubongo okhudzidwa ndi ndalama zomwe sizinakumane ndi zomwe zidasinthidwa adadziwika poyerekeza zotsatira zonse zakupambana motsutsana ndi zotsatira zonse zomwe sizinapambane, mkati mwa ROI yodziyimira yokhayokha kuchokera kusiyanasiyana kopambana mu kafukufuku wathu wapitawu (Clark et al., 2009). Kusintha kwakukuru kwa chizindikiridwe kunawonedwa m'malo angapo omwe amalumikizidwa ndi mphotho ndi kuphunzira kolimbitsa: ufulu wa ventral striatum (putamen) (voamel voxel: x, y, z = 20, 10, −6, Z = 3.66, voxels 133, pFWE= .029) ndi thalamus (x, y, z = 2, −6, 2; Z = 4.71, voxels 14, pFWE= .001), yokhala ndi subthreshold foci kumanzere kwamanzere olowa (x, y, z = −16, 2, −6, Z = 3.39, pFWE= .065), anterior insula bilterally (x, y, z = 28, 20, −6, Z = 3.46, pFWE= .054; x, y, z = 36, 16, −8, Z = 3.36, pFWE= .070; x, y, z = −36, 18, −6, Z = 3.47, pFWE= .052), ndi probimal midbrain to substantia nigra / ventral tegmental area (SN / VTA) (x, y, z = −8, −20, −14, Z = 3.36, pFWE= .071) (chikuwoneka Chithunzi 2A, oletsedwa p <.001 pazolinga zowonetsera). Kusiyana kodziyimira pawokha kumayesa kuyankha kwaubongo pazotsatira zaposachedwa, poyerekeza ndi kuphonya kwathunthu. Panali kusintha kwakukulu kwa chizindikiro mu ventral striatum yoyenera (putamen) (x, y, z = 18, 6, −2, Z = 3.67, 52 voxels, pFWE= .032) ndi kumanzere parahippocampal gyrus (BA 28) m'mphepete mwa striatum (x, y, z = −16, −2, −10, Z = 4.32, voxels 27, pFWE= .003) (onani Chithunzi 2B). Kusiyanitsa kwa omwe asankhidwa kutenga nawo mbali kumachita kupambana ndi makina osankhidwa ndi makompyuta, komanso kuyanjana kwa ntchito yaposachedwa ngati ntchito yoyendetsa pakokha, sikunapereke chiwonetsero chilichonse mu chigoba cha ROI.

Chithunzi 2 

A) Kutseguka kokhudzana ndi Win (win> zotsatira zosapambana) mwa otchova njuga, pogwiritsa ntchito gawo lachiwonetsero chazopambana kuchokera pachitsanzo chodziyimira pawokha (Clark et al. 2009). Zochitika zimawonetsedwa p <0.001 yopanda tanthauzo, k = 10, kufotokoza ...

Zovuta Zamtundu Waukalamba wa FMRI Kuyankha pa Zotsatira Zamasewera

Kubera kwa kutchova njuga (mphotho ya SOGS) idalowetsedwa ngati regressor imodzi mosiyana ndi ndalama zomwe zimapambana popanda kugwiritsa ntchito ndalama zilizonse, zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi chigoba cha ROI. Panalibe ma voxels ofunikira pomwe mphambu ya SOGS idaneneratu kuti iwonjezere kapena kuchepa mu ntchito zokhudzana ndi win. Komabe, kuwunikira kwa ma fayiridwe achichepere a posachedwa kwambiri kunawonetsa kuti kuwopsa kwa kutchova juga kwa SOGS kunali kogwirizana ndi kuyankha kwa ubongo pazotsatira zomwe zapezeka mu midbrain (ma 48 voxels: x, y, z = −6, ,18 , −16, Z = 4.99, pFWE<.001; x, y, z = 10, -18, -12, Z = 3.90, pFWE= .014) (onani Chithunzi 3). Kuphatikiza apo, tidawonanso kuopsa kwa kutchova juga kumadali kokhudzana ndi kuyankha kwa ubongo pazotsatira zomwe zapezeka munthawi yakumanzere (x, y, z = −12, 8, 6, Z = 3.91, 11 voxels, pFWE= .013). Tsango ili lili pakatikati pa ROI, ndikuphimba kapisozi wamkati, ndipo sitinathe kuzindikira win- (kusiyanitsa 1) kapena pafupi-miss- (kusiyanitsa 2) zochitika zokhudzana ndi izi pakadali pano, ngakhale paufulu malire (p <.005 osakonzedwa). Kuphatikiza apo, chizindikiritso chotengedwa kuchokera ku ventral striatum ndi masango a midbrain anali zabwino yolumikizidwa pa win onse (r20= 0.72, p <.001) ndi zotsatira zaposachedwa (r20= 0.43, p = .06), monga taonera m'maphunziro am'mbuyomu (D'Ardenne et al., 2008, Schott et al., 2008, Kahnt et al., 2009). Chifukwa chake, ngakhale kuli kwakuti chidziwitso chapamwamba ichi chidakwaniritsa kufunika kwathu, tili osamala popereka gawo lachigawochi kutchova juga pafupi ndi zomwe zatsala.

Chithunzi 3 

A) Zovuta zakuchepetsa njuga (South Oaks Gambling Screen; SOGS) pakuyambitsa kwaphonya komwe kumachitika, m'chigawo cha chidwi cha maski (chowonetsedwa p <0.001 osakonzedwa, k = 10). B) Chizindikiro chotulutsidwa chakuwonongeka kwakanthawi kochepa mu ...

Kernel yosalala (10mm) yoyendetsedwa pakuwunika kwathu koyambirira imatilepheretsa kuthana ndi kuyambitsa mkati mwa ubongo wapakati. Tinakonzanso mtundu wa fMRI pogwiritsa ntchito kernel yaying'ono ya 4mm. Pakusanthula kwaubongo wonse pogwiritsa ntchito malo owunikira (p <.001 osakonzedwa), zoyambitsa ziwiri mkatikati mwa ubongo (x = -8, y = -18, z = -18, Z = 3.37, p <0.001; x = 12 , y = -16, z = -12, Z = 3.28, p = 0.001) adawonetsa kukhudzika kwa kutchova juga kwa SOGS pazoyambitsa zaposachedwa (zowonetsedwa mu Chithunzi 4A pakhomo la p <.005 osakonzedwa). Izi ndizogwirizana ndi chizindikiro cha SN / VTA (Duzel et al., 2009).

Chithunzi 4 

A) Kuyanjana pakati pa kuuma njuga (kuchuluka kwa SOGS) ndi kuyambitsa kwakanthawi kochepa (pafupi-kuphonya kwathunthu) mu midbrain (z = -18 ndi z = -12), pogwiritsa ntchito kernel yaying'ono (4mm) yosalala. Zochita zatsekedwa p <0.005 yopanda tanthauzo ...

Omwe amatchova juga nthawi zonse amawonetsa zovuta zingapo zamankhwala zomwe zimakulira pang'ono ndikulimba kwawo kutchova juga. Kuti tiwone ngati gulu la midbrain limalumikizidwa kwambiri ndi kutchova juga m'malo mozunzika izi, tidaphatikizaponso njira zopitilira kukhumudwa (BDI), nkhawa (BAI), ADHD symptomatology (ASRS), impulsivity (BIS), OCD zizindikiro (Padua scale ) ndi kumwa / kumwa mowa mopitirira muyeso (AUQ sikelo) monga zowonjezera zowonjezeranso mu kusokonekera kwa SOGS. Nthawi zonse, kutsegula kwa midbrain (peak voxel: x = -6, y = -18, z = -16) yamgwirizano wa SOGS idawoneka ndi ziwerengero za Z pakati pa 2.20-2.56 (p = .014 to p = .005 zosakonzedwa). Mosiyana ndi izi, mayanjano olakwika pakati pa SOGS ndi zochitika zaposachedwa mu caudate sizinapulumuke kuwongolera kukhumudwa (BDI) ndi OCD (Padua wadogo), pamalire owolowa manja a p <0.05 osakonzedwa.

Izi zikuwonetsa kuti pamalingaliro opangika, kuyankha kwamphamvu kwambiri pakubwera pafupi ndi zotsatira zakuphonya kumalumikizidwa ndi njuga zosasangalatsa. Kafukufuku wam'mbuyomu woyeserera wa otchova njuga amayambira zambiri mayendedwe ntchito zokhudzana ndi mphotho (Reuter et al., 2005). Kuti tipeze kuwonongeka uku, tikuwunika kuwunika pakati pa magulu ndikufananiza kuyankha konse kwaubongo kuti tikalandire mphotho (zomwe zapambana zomwe sizinapambane) pazomwe timatchova njuga nthawi zonse motsutsana ndi omwe sanatchova njuga kuchokera ku maphunziro athu apitawa (Clark et al., 2009). Izi zinkachitika ngati kusanthula kwaubongo wathunthu pogwiritsa ntchito njira yofufuzira (p <.001 yopanda tanthauzo). Mogwirizana ndi Reuter et al, otchova njuga nthawi zonse amawonetsa kuyankha kofooka pakupeza ndalama m'malo angapo olandila mphotho kuphatikiza striatum ndi rostral anterior cingate cortex (onani Chithunzi 4B ndi Table Supplementary 5,, pambuyo povala masinthidwe amtundu pazaka. Panalibe kusiyana kwamagulu pagulu lililonse poyankha. ANOVA yachitsanzo chosakanizira cha omwe amakhala otchova juga pamasewera omwe amakhala otchova juga komanso osagwirizana ndi ochita masewera olimbitsa thupi sanawonetse kusiyana kwam'magulu, ngakhale zili choncho, m'gululo lolembe (n = 34) panali zofunikira zazowonongera zomwe zimasankhidwa ndi omwe asankhidwa Zotsatira zakukweza miyezo ya 'Pitilizani kusewera' (t (33) = 1.87, p = .07) wachibale ndi omwe asankhidwa nawo Zowonjezera Zowonjezera ndi Zowonjezera Tebulo 6).

Kukambirana

Kafukufukuyu adafufuza mayankho a ubongo pa makina ogwiritsira ntchito makompyuta pagulu la ochita masewera olimbitsa thupi omwe nthawi zambiri amasinthasintha zochitika zawo kuchokera pa zosangalatsa, masewera olimbitsa thupi mpaka ochita masewera olimbitsa thupi oopsa. Kupambana kosagwirizana ndi ndalama zomwe zinapindulidwazo kunakonzera madera omwe amakumana ndi mphotho kuphatikiza gawo laling'ono. Ntchito yathu inapangitsa kuti kufananirako mwachindunji kwa pafupi-ndi osapambana kuphonya konse osapambana, ndipo izi zikuwonetsa kuyankhidwa kwakuphonya kwapafupi m'magawo anthaka komanso ochita bwino, ngakhale sanapambane pazotsatira izi. Kuwunika kumeneku kwa otchova juga nthawi zonse kumapitikitsa zomwe tapeza mwa odzipereka omwe ali ndi thanzi labwino otenga nawo mbali (Clark et al., 2009), kukuwonetsa kufunafuna ntchito zaubwino wamaubongo ndi zotsatira zaposachedwa. Cholinga chenicheni cha phunziroli chinali kuphatikiza mayankho a fMRIyi komanso kusiyanasiyana pakubwera kwa kutchova njuga, kuti tiwone kufunikira kwa mayankho awa ku buku lomwe likubwera pa neurobiology yamavuto otchova njuga (Reuter et al., 2005, Potenza, 2008). Zambiri pamndandanda wathu wamtundu wakutchova juga (SOGS) wochokera ku 0 mpaka 19 (onani Zowonjezera Chithunzi 1), wokhala ndi chiwonetsero cha 5 chowonetsera kutchova juga kwa pathological. Izi zikugogomezera kupezeka kwakanthawi kovutikira njuga kwa anthu omwe siachipatala (Currie et al., 2006,, ndikuwonetsa kuti njira yowunikira yoyeserera ndioyenera kuwunika zolembera za neural zongotaya njuga. Ngakhale gawo la SOGS silinalumikizidwe ndi kuyankha kwa ubongo kumaula a ndalama, kuopsa kwa kutchova juga kunanenedweratu ndi kuyankha kwa neural pazotsatira zaposachedwa, mu midbrain. Kutsegulaku kunali kotsimikizika ku dopaminergic nuclei mu SN / VTA, kupeza komwe kunalimbikitsidwa kwambiri ndikuwunikanso kwa kafukufuku wathu pogwiritsa ntchito kernel yaying'ono (4mm) yosalalaBunzeck ndi Duzel, 2006, D'Ardenne et al., 2008, Murray et al., 2008, Shohamy ndi Wagner, 2008, Duzel et al., 2009). Kuphatikiza apo, mgwirizano wapakati pa ntchito zapakati pa ntchito zapakati pa kuchepa kwapafupi ndi kuphonya kwa juga sizinatchulidwe bwino ndi zisonyezo zina zamankhwala (kupsinjika, kufunikira, OCD, kumwa mowa) zomwe ndizofala kwambiri kwa otchova njuga pafupipafupi (Kessler et al., 2008).

Mgwirizano wapakati pa ma midbrain umagwirizana ndi gawo la kufalitsa dopamine mu njuga zosawerengeka, zomwe zikuwonetsedwa ndi kafukufuku wakale wa zolembera zam'mbuyo (Bergh et al., 1997, Meyer et al., 2004) ndi chodabwitsa cha mankhwala omwe amachititsa kuti njuga zizibwera m'matenda a Parkinson (Dodd et al., 2005, Steeves et al., 2009). Matendawa amakhudzidwa makamaka ndi mankhwala a agonist a D3-preference dopamine, ndipo ndikudziwika kuti D3-receptors ndi yochuluka mu SN yamunthu (Gurevich ndi Joyce, 1999). Kutha kwa zotsatira zakuphonya kopititsa patsogolo kufalitsa kwa dopamine m'mavuto azovuta kwambiri otchova juga kumatha kupangitsa kuti izi zitheke kuti zitheke kutchova njuga (Kassinove ndi Schare, 2001, Cote et al., 2003, Clark et al., 2009). Maphunziro a electrophysiological kujambula kuchokera ku ma midbrain neurons awonetsa gawo lodziwika bwino la dongosololi posayina mphotho ndi zolakwika za kulosera mphotho (Schultz, 2002, Montague et al., 2004). Kafukufuku wamatenda a anthu amatsimikizira mayankho a midbrain BOLD mu ntchito zamaubwino azamalonda (mwachitsanzo Bjork et al., 2004, D'Ardenne et al., 2008, Schott et al., 2008), yomwe imalumikizana ndi mlozera mwachindunji wa kutulutsidwa kwa driatal dopamine ([11C] raclopride kuhamishwa) (Schott et al., 2008). Zachidziwikire, ndizotheka kuti zolakwitsa zolosera zamtsogolo zimayesedwa posachedwa mayeso pantchito yaposachedwa: cholosera cholosera cholondola chimachitika pamene cholembera m'mbuyo chimachitika ndipo mutuwo ukuyembekeza kuti upambana. Izi zimatsatiridwa nthawi yomweyo ndikulakwitsa kolosera zamtsogolo, pomwe reel imayimitsa malo amodzi kuchokera pamzera wopambana. Zambiri zaposachedwa zikuwonetsa kuti chizindikiro cha midbrain BOLD chitha kuphatikizidwa ndi zolakwika zolosera (D'Ardenne et al., 2008), zogwirizana ndi machitidwe amtundu wa otchova juga owerengera mwayi wawo wopambana (Ladouceur & Walker 1996). Zowonjezera ziwiri zakuwombera kwa midbrain zomwe zikuwoneka mu data ya electrophysiological zitha kukhala zogwirizana ndi zomwe zapezeka mu fMRI pano. Choyamba, ma neuron a midbrain amawonetsa kukhudzana, komwe amayaka moto zomwe zimafanana ndi kulosera kwa mphotho (Tobler et al., 2005, Shohamy ndi Wagner, 2008). Ndi lingaliro loyesedwa kuti otchova njuga amawonetsa kusinthika kwakukuluku kwamtsogolo kwa mphotho, yolumikizidwa ndi midbrain hyper-reactivity. Chachiwiri, ma neuroni apakati amatha kuwonetsa kusinthasintha kwa ntchito, pomwe mayankho awo olimba amawonjezedwa pamalipiro omwe alipo (Tobler et al., 2005). Izi zitha kufotokozera chifukwa chomwe sitinawonepo mgwirizano wapakati wa njuga pakukonda njuga pa kupambana pa zotsatira zabwino, ngakhale kuti mayendedwe apakati a midbrain amapambana. Komabe, sitinawonetse poyera kusiyana mu mphamvu ya SOGS-midbrain mayanjano apafupi-miss ndikupambana mayesero. Kuchokera pa mzere wabwino Chithunzi 3C, tingaganizire kuti mgwirizano wa SOGS-midbrain ukhoza kuwoneka wopambana zotsatira mu zitsanzo zokulirapo.

Kafukufuku wam'mbuyomu woyang'anira masewera otchovera njuga adanenanso kuchepa CHINSINSI cholimba Boma mu ventral striatum ndi PFC yamankhwala poyankha ndalamaReuter et al., 2005). Kupeza kumeneku kumasulira kuti ndi umboni wa akaunti yakusowa kwa mphotho ya njuga zamatenda, pomwe dongosolo lopatsa mphoto mopepuka limapereka chiopsezo cha mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya zizolowezi (Bowirrat ndi Oscar-Berman, 2005). Ntchito yomwe amagwira mu Reuter et al. Kuwerenga kunali kophweka posankha zinthu ziwiri zomwe sizingatheke kupangitsa kuti anthu aziganiza molakwika komanso kuti azitha kudziwa zinthu zomwe zili pakatikati pa njuga.Ladouceur ndi Walker, 1996, Clark, 2010). Tidayesa timagulu tosiyana-siyana ndikufanizira otchova juga omwe apezeka paphunziroli pompano kwa omwe anadzipereka odzipereka omwe atenga nawo gawo pathupi lathu lapitalo (Clark et al., 2009). Ngakhale mabungwe omwe amapangidwenso ndalama omwe amapeza ndalama anali ofanana kwambiri pamagulu awiriwa, otchova njuga nthawi zonse adawonetsa chidwi kuti apambana zomwe zidapambana pakubwera kwa stralatum ndi madokotala a PFC, kuwongolera Reuter et al (2005). Mosatsimikiza, zomwe zapezeka pano zikuwonetsa kuti mtundu uwu wa kuchepa kwa mphotho yonse umaphatikizidwanso mopitirira muyeso kufunsidwa kwa mphoto yamaubongo mu ubongo wamikhalidwe yovuta kuzindikira (zoperewera), zomwe zimasiyanasiyana ngati ntchito yokhudza kutchova njuga. Ndiwowoneka kuti zotsatira ziwiri izi zidathetsedwa pakuyerekeza kwapakati pa zochitika zaposachedwa, pomwe palibe kusiyana komwe kunawonedwa.

Mfundo zina ziwiri poyerekeza ndi zomwe taphunzira m'mbuyomu ndizofunikira. Choyamba, kafukufuku wathu wakale adanena za kulumikizana pakati pa zomwe zalakwitsa ndikuwongolera kwamwini mu PFC yamankhwala (Clark et al., 2009). Sitinathe kulimbikitsa mgwirizano munthawi yomwe akutchova njuga amakonda. Zowonadi, otchova njuga nthawi zonse sanawonetse kufunafuna kwenikweni kuderali ngakhale kuti winayo anali wopambana, ndipo kafukufuku wamankhwala amtsempha akuwonetsa kusokonezedwa kwapadera pakukhulupirika kwa PFC pamayendedwe ovuta (Goudriaan et al., 2006, Lawrence et al., 2009). Kafukufuku wathu wam'mbuyomu adanenanso za gawo lalikulu la chofunikira polimbikitsira. Mu kafukufuku wapano, kutsegulira kwa insula kunangolekeredwa pamitundu yonse yopambana, pamlingo wocheperako wa FWE, ndipo mayankho awa sanachite mosavomerezeka ndi kutchova njuga. Tikukhulupirira mayankho a insula iyi amapereka chidziwitso cha zotumphukira za thupi (mwachitsanzo, kuchuluka kwa mtima) pakuchita njuga (mwachitsanzo Craig, 2003,, ndipo zingakhale zovuta kupangitsa izi kukhala zabwino mwa otchova juga omwe amakhala odziwa zambiri ndi masewera olimbitsa mtima. Maphunziro a Psychophysiological mu osewera okhazikika adawonetsa kusiyana pakati pa kutchova juga m'malo ogwiritsira ntchito zasayansi motsutsana ndi masinthidwe achilengedwe (mwachitsanzo kasino)Anderson ndi Brown, 1984, Meyer et al., 2004). Ntchito yamtsogolo yophatikiza fMRI ndikuwunika kuwunika kuyenera kuyesedwa ndikuyanjana pakati pa ntchito yolumikizana ndi ubongo mu njuga (cf Critchley et al., 2001).

Zolephera zina za kafukufuku wapano ziyenera kudziwika. Poyamba, pomwe timayendera zochitika zingapo zofala limodzi, zovuta zina kuphatikizapo kudalirana kwa chikonga ndi mavuto amunthu (Cunningham-Williams et al., 1998) sanayesedwe. Chachiwiri, kuyerekezera kwapakati pakati paophunzira pakalepo sikunakonzekere ndipo maguluwo sanafanane ndi zaka komanso jenda. Tinkachita zofuna zakubadwa koma osati jenda, popeza gulu lathu la otchova njuga nthawi zonse linali pafupifupi laimuna. Kutchova njuga kofala kumakhala kofala kwambiri mwa amuna (Kessler et al., 2008,, komabe maphunziro owonjezera amafunikira kuti adziyese ngati zotsatira zathu zimakhudzana ndi otchova juga azimayi. Chachitatu, malipoti omwe adadziwonetsera okha sanawonetse pang'onopang'ono zotsatira zomwe zapezeka mwa omwe amatchova njuga nthawi zonse. Izi mwina ndi vuto lamphamvu yowerengera yomwe idapatsika kuwongolera kwa malingaliro a analogue: muphunziro lathu lakale, zotsatira zoyeserera zinaonedwa poyeserera kwakukulu pakuchita kwa odzipereka a 40. Zowopsa zazomwe [ochita nawo-osankhidwa] omwe ali pafupi-kuphonya kuti awonjezere chidwi chake chidaseweredwa pakuwunika kozama madongosolo awiri a fMRI (n = 34, onani Table Supplementary 6). Pomaliza, malingaliro athu akuti dopamine amatenga nawo gawo pa kutchova juga pafupi-kuphonya kuyenera kuchitidwa chisamaliro choyenera popewa kusadziwika kwa siginecha ya BOLD komanso kusintha kwakanthawi kwa fMRI (onani. Duzel et al., 2009 kuti iwunikenso). Ma neurotransmitters omwe amadziwika kuti ali ndi chizolowezi chotchova juga, kuphatikiza serotonin, amapezeka pakatikati, ndipo amasinthidwa ndi zoyeserera, osasamala ndi mayankho a phasic (Nakamura et al., 2008). Mapangidwe azovuta za pharmacological adzafunika kufufuza mafunso awa mwachindunji; Mwachitsanzo, Zack & Poulos (2004) adatinso dotamine agonist, amphetamine, akuwonjezera kulimbikitsa kutchova njuga komanso kusamala ndi chidwi ndi omwe akutchova njuga. Chimodzi mwazomwe zimatanthauzidwa ndizopezeka kuti mankhwala omwe amachepetsa kufalikira kwa dopamine atha kukhala ndi mwayi ku chithandizo chochepetsera kuzindikira kwakumvetsetsa kwa otchova njuga.

Zowonjezera Zowonjezera

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Zothokoza

Mothandizidwa ndi ndalama zoperekedwa kuchokera ku Economic and Social Research Council ndi Udindo mu Kutchova Juga kwa LC ndi TW Robbins (RES-164-25-0010). Kumaliza mkati mwa Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, mothandizidwa ndi mphotho ya Consortium kuchokera ku Medical Research Council (UK) ndi Wellcome Trust. Tili othokoza kwambiri kwa omwe atenga nawo mbali, ndiogwira ntchito ku radiographic ku Wolfson Brain Imaging Center, Cambridge, UK

Zothandizira

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