Achinyamata amaopsezedwa kutenga, kutengeka, ndi kukula kwa ubongo: zotsatira za kupewa (2010)

 Dev Psychobiol. 2010 Apr;52(3):263-76. doi: 10.1002/dev.20442.

Romer D.

gwero

Annenberg Public Policy Center University of Pennsylvania, 202 S. 36th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA. [imelo ndiotetezedwa]

Kudalirika

Kusiyanitsa kwa munthu payekha kumaganizira zoopsa zomwe zimachitika paunyamata, ndipo njira zina zoopsya za khalidweli zimagwirizana ndi zikhalidwe zomwe sizikuwoneka bwino kumayambiriro kwa chitukuko. Komabe, njira zoyambirira zowonekera zimatha kuchepetsa kuopsa ndi zotsatira za makhalidwe amenewa poonjezera kulamulira pa khalidwe ndi kulimbikira ku zolinga zamtengo wapatali, monga kupindula kwa maphunziro. Mtundu umodzi wa kukhumba, kufunafuna, kumakula kwambiri paunyamata ndipo kumawonjezera ngozi kuti chitukuko chikhale bwino. Komabe, kubwereza kwa umboni kwa lingaliro lakuti zoperewera mu chitukuko cha ubongo paunyamata zimalepheretsa kuthetsa kusaganizira kumasonyeza kuti zolepheretsa zoterozo ndizobisika bwino. M'malo mwake, akunenedwa kuti kusowa chidziwitso ndi khalidwe lachikulire lachidziwitso limayambitsa chiopsezo chachikulu kwa achinyamata kusiyana ndi kuwonongeka kwa ubongo mu msinkhu wokhala ndi ubongo. Kupitiliza kufufuza kafukufuku kumathandizira kupeza njira zomwe zimatetezera achinyamata pamene akusinthira kukhala akuluakulu.

Kuchokera - Zotsatira za Zithunzi Zolaula pa Intaneti pa Achinyamata: Kupenda kafukufuku (2012)

  • Kusokonekera kwa ubongo mu ubongo wa achinyamata, ndi malingaliro monga chithunzi chapamwamba, zimapereka zidziwitso za momwe achinyamata angasokonezedwe ndi zotsatira zovulaza pamene akugonana ndi zolaula. Kuonjezerapo, kafukufuku amasonyeza kuti kusowa kwa chidziwitso ndi kudziwana ndi khalidwe lachikulire lakale kumayambitsa chiopsezo chachikulu (Romer, 2010). Zingakhale zogwirizana ndi kuwongolera kwa malingaliro awa, ndipo kusiyana kumeneku kumagwirizana ndi kufunikira kwa kafukufuku wowonjezera za zotsatira za zolaula pa ubongo wa achinyamata.

Kukula kwakukulu kwa sayansi ya ubongo m'zaka 10 zapitazi kwatulutsa zotsatira zodabwitsa zokhuza kukula kwa ubongo kuyambira ali mwana ndi unyamata (Giedd, Blumenthal, Jeffries, Castellanos, Liu, Zijdenbos, et al., 1999; Sowell, Thompson, Tessner, & Toga, 2001). Zomwe zinachititsa chidwi kwambiri zokhudzana ndi kusasitsa kwapadera kwa correx (PFC) ndi madera a parietal. Zikuwoneka kuti m'zaka zapakati pa 11, PFC ndi parietal lobes zimayamba nthawi yambiri kudulira mitsempha yotchedwa neuronal axon chifukwa chochepetsanso mchere wambiri. Panthawi imodzimodziyo, zikuwoneka kuti kuwonjezeka kwa chikhulupiliro cha thupi. Kufunika kwa kusintha kwachisinthikoku sikuyenera kukhazikitsidwa. Komabe, ofufuza ambiri amanena kuti kudulira kwapakati kwa PFC kukuyimira kukula koyendetsa khalidwe, kusakhalako komwe kumakhudzana ndi kukhudzidwa ndi kusaganiza bwino. Ndipotu, achinyamata akhala akudziwika kuti ndi oopsa kwambiri chifukwa chogwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo, kuvulala mwadzidzidzi (makamaka ngozi zapamsewu), komanso kugonana kosateteza (Arnett, 1992).

Malinga ndi machitidwe a ubongo ndi khalidwe labwino, ofufuza ochokera m'madera osiyanasiyana adalongosola njira ziwiri za kusamba kwa ubongo zomwe zimapangitsa mwanayo kuti asatengeke ndi kutengeka. Njira imodzi yomwe imayambira msinkhu waunyamata imayendetsedwa ndi madera a mphotho ya frontostriatal yokhudza ventral striatum (mwachitsanzo, nucleus accumbens) (Casey, Getz, & Galvan, 2008; Chambers, Taylor, & Potenza, 2003; Galvan, Hare, Parra, Penn, Voss, Glover, et al., 2006). Maulendowa amakula mwamsanga (Fuster, 2002) ndi kulimbikitsa mwanayo kuti ayambe kuchoka kutali ndi banja komanso kuti azichita zinthu zambiri zokhudzana ndi anthu akuluakulu (Mtsuko, 2007). N'zosadabwitsa kuti zambiri mwazimenezi zikukhudzidwa ndi chiopsezo china (mwachitsanzo, kuyendetsa galimoto, kugonana).

Pa nthawi yomwe mwanayo akuchita nawo ntchito zowonongeka komanso zoopsa, akuti PFC siidakalipo mpaka pamene pangakhale ngozi zomwe zingayang'ane bwino ndikuyang'anira zoopsa zomwe zingatheke kuti zitha kupezeka kuti zisawonongeke. Makamaka, PFC ndi kugwirizana kwake ndi zigawo zina za ubongo zimaganiziridwa kuti sizokwanira kuti zikhale zoyenera pa khalidwe la achinyamata. Kusiyana kwakukulu kwapangidwe ka PFC-yoyendetsa polojekiti yokhudzana ndi maulendo apamwamba oyendetsa magulu akudandaula kuti zimakhala zovuta zosaŵerengeka kwa achinyamata (Casey et al., 2008; Nelson, Bloom, Cameron, Amaral, Dahl, & Pine, 2002; Steinberg, 2008). Kuonjezerapo, akuti pali njira zothandizira kuchepetsa nthawi yowonjezereka zomwe sizidzatheka (onani Steinberg, nkhaniyi).

Papepala lino, ndikutsutsa kuti magwero akuluakulu omwe amabwera chifukwa chokhala ndi chiopsezo chotenga kachilombo kawopseza ndi zochitika ziwiri. Imodzi ndiyomwe imakhalapo kale yomwe ilipo kale yomwe imawonekera m'zaka zoyambirira za moyo (osachepera zaka 3) zomwe zimapitirirabe kuunyamata. Izi zowopsa ndizofanana Moffitt's (1993) "Kupitirizabe kwa moyo" njira yachitukuko ndi ya Patterson (Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992) "Njira yoyamba". Njira yachiwiri ya chiopsezo imakhudzana ndi kuwuka kwa chisokonezo chomwe chimabwera chifukwa cha kukhazikitsidwa kwa ventral striatum (Chambers et al., 2003; Mtsuko, 2009). Monga taonera kale, kusintha kumeneku kumalimbikitsa kuyesera ndi khalidwe labwino (khalidwe lachikulire). Komabe, mmalo moyimira chilolezo chokhazikika pazomwe zimayendetsa patsogolo, zizoloŵezi zotenga chiopsezozi zimayesedwa kuti zikhale zotsatira zowonjezereka bwino ndi kusoŵa kosavomerezeka kosadziŵika komwe kumagwirizanitsidwa ndi kuchita nawo makhalidwe awa.

Poyambitsa ndemanga imeneyi, ndikuyamba ndikuwonetsa umboni wokhudzana ndi chilakolako choyambirira komanso momwe chizoloŵezi chaunyamata, makamaka zovuta zapadera, zingayambitse achinyamata kuti achite ntchito yoopsa pamene akuyendetsa msinkhu. Umboni umenewu ukusonyeza kuti chiwopsezo chachikulu chomwe chimayambitsa nthawi yaunyamata chikhoza kukhala chifukwa cholephera kulamulira msinkhu waunyamata. Zotsatira zake, kuopsa kwa achinyamata kumakhala kovuta, ndipo kusiyana kumodzi kumayambitsa chikhalidwe chotere pa nthawi ya unyamata.

Pitani ku:

Zowonetseratu Zakale Zowopsa kwa Achinyamata

Ngakhale kuti achinyamata amadziwika kuti ali ndi chidwi komanso osadziŵa kulingalira, umboni wokhudza khalidwe ngati umenewu umapereka chithunzi choposa. Ngati tiyang'ana pa kafukufuku wam'mbuyo wautali wa khalidwe loopsya, timayang'ana mwatsatanetsatane. Mwachitsanzo, pankhani ya kumwa mowa kwambiri, deta kuchokera ku Seattle Social Development Project (Phiri, White, Chung, Hawkins, & Catalano, 2000) akuwonetsedwa mkati Chithunzi 1 asonyeze kuti m'malo mowonetsa kuwonjezeka kwa uniform pa nthawi yonse ya unyamata, chitsanzo chachikulu cha khalidwe ili sichiyenera kuchita. Pafupifupi 70% a anyamata mu gululo adanena kuti palibe kumwa mowa kwambiri. Kumbali ina, panali kagulu kakang'ono ka unyamata (3%) omwe anawonetsa mitengo yambiri ya zakumwa zoledzera ali ndi zaka 13 ndipo omwe adapitirizabe kuchita zimenezi mpaka zaka 18. Gulu lachitatu la achinyamata (4%) linayamba kumwa mowa mwauchidakwa ndipo gulu lachinayi lalikulu (23%) linayamba patapita zaka 18.

Chithunzi 1  

Kusuta mowa mwauchidakwa monga Seattle Social Development Project (yolembedwanso ndi chilolezo kuchokera Hill ndi al., 2000).

Mwinanso khalidwe loopsya, laukali, linaphunziridwa ndi Nagin ndi Tremblay (1999) m'magulu awo a anyamata ammudzi ku Montreal. Monga taonera Chithunzi 2, ngakhale m'gulu la anthu oopsa kwambiri, achinyamata ambiri (17%) sanachitepo zachiwawa. Komabe, achinyamata ambiri amene anachita zimenezi akadakali aang'ono (80%) adawonetsa chiwerengero chochepa cha nkhanza ngati akukalamba. Zitsanzo izi sizitsimikiziranso kuti nthawi zina achinyamata amatha kuzindikira chidziwitso. Komabe, monga mowa mopitirira muyeso, kagulu kakang'ono ka unyamata (4%) kanali ndi chiwerengero chokwanira chaukali msinkhu waunyamata ndipo chinapitirizabe kutsutsana ndi achinyamatawa.

Chithunzi 2  

Makhalidwe achiwawa omwe amapezeka mumzinda wa Montreal (olembedwa ndi chilolezo kuchokera Nagin & Tremblay, 1999). Zolemba zinayi zinadziwika: Zochepa (17%), desisters zochepa (52%), high desisters (28%), ndi zosatha ...

Izi zikugwirizana ndi malingaliro a Moffitt ndi a Patterson akuti mitundu yambiri yamakhalidwe oyipa yoyambira idayambira koyambirira msinkhu wachinyamata. Zowonadi, misinkhu iyi ikuwonetsa kuti achinyamata satenga nawo mbali pamakhalidwe omwe ali pachiwopsezo chachikulu komanso kuti gwero lalikulu lakuyika pachiwopsezo cha achinyamata limakhalapo asanakwane nthawi yaunyamata. Ndizosadabwitsa chifukwa chake kusiyana kwakukulu pakati pa achinyamata kutha kutenga gawo laling'ono launyamata gawo lalikulu la zovuta zomwe zimawononga achinyamata. Mwachitsanzo, Biglan ndi Cody (2003) anapeza kuti 18% ya anyamata a zaka za 12 ku 20 anawerengera pafupifupi magawo awiri pa atatu aliwonse a galimoto yoledzera ndi 88% ya kumangidwa kwa milandu.

Pitani ku:

Udindo wa Kusakhudzidwa Kwa Achinyamata Oyamba Kukula Mwachangu

Umboni wochuluka umasonyeza kuti achinyamata amene amakhala pachiopsezo choyambirira, monga kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo komanso khalidwe loipa, amasonyeza makhalidwe apamwamba kwambiri ali ndi zaka 3 (Caspi & Silva, 1995; Caspi, Henry, McGee, Moffitt, & Silva, 1995; Caspi, Moffitt, Newman, & Silva, 1996; Masse & Tremblay, 1997; Raine, Reynolds, Venables, Mednick, & Farrington, 1998). Zoonadi, zonsezi zikuwoneka kuti zikugwirizana ndi chikhalidwe chachikulu cha makhalidwe osakanikirana (Kreuger et al., 2002) zomwe zikuwonekera kumayambiriro kwa chitukuko (McGue, Iacono, & Kreuger, 2006). Umboni umenewu umatsitsimutsanso lingaliro lakuti khalidwe lalikulu la khalidwe lopweteka lomwe likuwonedwa mwachinyamata likuphatikizapo peresenti ya unyamata (cf. Biglan ndi Cody, 2003).

Komabe, powerenga udindo wa kusakhudzidwa, ndikofunikira kuzindikira kuti chizoloŵezicho ndi chochuluka ndipo sichisonyeza ngati khalidwe limodzi. M'malo mwake, zikuonekeratu m'mafomu atatu odziimira okhaokha. Chinthu chimodzi chotere, chomwe chingatchulidwe kuchita popanda kuganiza, amadziwika ndi kuchita zinthu mopupuluma popanda umboni wokhudzidwa kapena kusamala zachilengedwe. Imayesedwa ndi sikelo ziwiri zokha: Barratt Impulsivity Scale's motor impulsivity subscale (Patton, Stanford, & Barratt, 1995) ndi Eysenck I7 scale (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985). Poyang'aniridwa ndi lipoti loyang'anitsitsa, limakhala ndi khalidwe losalamulirika komanso losawonongeka, monga momwe anawonetsera ana omwe ali ndi vuto la kuchepa kwa matenda (ADHD) (Barkley, 1997).

Kuchita popanda kuganiza ndilo cholinga cha malingaliro okhudza ubongo wa chiopsezo choyambirira cha mavuto osokoneza bongo (Tarter ndi al., 2003; Zucker, 2006). Ochita kafukufuku amene amagwiritsa ntchito mayesero akuluakulu kuti azitha kuwonetsa khalidweli, amayang'ana njira zowonongeka, monga ntchito zosayima (Williams, Ponesse, Shachar, Logan, & Tannock, 1999). Ntchito izi zimawunikira kuthetsa kuyang'ana zotsutsana ndikuchitapo kanthu ndikuletsa mayankho omwe akuyankhidwa posakhalitsa. Kwa ana aang'ono, ntchito yosavuta kumaphatikizapo kuyang'anira ndondomeko zomwe zimakhala zofunikira kwambiri (ntchito ya flanker). Ana omwe ali ndi kachilombo ka HIV samagwira ntchito zochepa (Vaidya, Bunge, Dudukoric, Zalecki, Elliot, Gabrieli, 2005).

Mchitidwe wachiwiri wachikhumbo umadziwika ndi chizoloŵezi chowonetsa kusaleza pamene apatsidwa chisankho pakati pa mphotho yaying'ono yomwe ikugwirizana ndi mphotho yayikuru koma yochedwa. Kawirikawiri imawonedwa pogwiritsa ntchito kuchepetsa kuchepetsa paradigm yomwe ikhoza kuyesa kusiyana pakati pa mphotho zowonongeka (Ainslie, 1975; Rachlin, 2000). Mischel ndi anzanu (1988) amagwiritsa ntchito ntchito yosavuta yomwe ana ali ndi zaka zakubadwa 4 anapatsidwa ntchito yodikira kulandira chithandizo choyesa ngati mapepala awiri. Ana omwe adzikaniza okha nthanga imodzi kuti adzalandire awiri panthawi ina adatengedwa ngati kuwonetsa chipiriro. Kuwonjezera pamenepo, ana omwe anagwira bwino ntchitoyi adapitirizabe kusonyeza kuleza mtima pa zizindikiro zoterezi monga maphunziro apamwamba paunyamata. Kafukufuku wina amasonyeza kuti achinyamata omwe sakhala oleza mtima amatha kuyesa ndi kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo (B. Reynolds, 2006; Romer, Duckworth, Sznitman, & Park, 2010).

Monga momwe kuchita popanda kuganiza kumagwirizanitsidwa ndi zoperewera mu ntchito yogwira ntchito, kusiyana kwa kuchepetsa kuchepetsa kulumikizana kumakhala kosiyana ndi ntchito yogwiritsira ntchito malingaliro ndi IQ (Shamosh, DeYoung, Green, Reis, Johnson, Conway, et al., 2008). Kuyanjana kumeneku kumasonyeza kuti anthu omwe ali ndi mphamvu zochepa zokhala ndi zolinga zakutali pakugwira ntchito kukumbukira posankha pakati pa mphotho yomweyo ndi yochepetsedwa ndizovuta kuthetsera kuchepetsa mphoto. Chiyanjano pakati pa olamulira ofooka omwe amagwira ntchito ndi mtundu uliwonse wa malingaliro ameneŵa sizosadabwitsa chifukwa chakuti khalidwe lodzidzimutsa limatanthauzidwa ngati kusowa chidziwitso pa khalidwe.

Ngakhale kuti olamulira ofooka akugwira ntchito mopanda kuleza mtima ndi kuchita zinthu popanda kuganiza, umboni wa zinyama ndi zitsanzo za anthu umasonyeza kuti izi zokhumba zodziimira ndizokhazikika (Pattij & Vanderschuren, 2008; B. Reynolds, Penfold, & Patak, 2008). Izi zikutanthauza kuti, anthu omwe ali ndi mtundu umodzi wa kukhumba sakhala ochepa kapena ochepa kuti asonyeze enawo. Kuonjezera apo, pali mtundu wachitatu wa kukhudzidwa komwe uli wosiyana ndi ena awiri (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). Chizoloŵezi chofikira zochitika zatsopano ndi zosangalatsa, zotchedwa Timatha (Zuckerman, 1994) kapena zachilendo (Cloninger, Sigvardsson, & Bohman, 1988) kufunafuna, kumadziwika ndi kufufuza zolemba zatsopano ndi chizoloŵezi choyesera ntchito zosangalatsa ngakhale zoopsa zomwe zimayenderana nawo. Zapezeka kuti zikuluzikulu mwa ana omwe amasonyeza machitidwe oyipa ndi mitundu ina yowonongeka (Raine et al., 1998).

Pa kafukufuku wopangidwa ku Philadelphia ndi chitsanzo cha achinyamata a 387 a zaka za 10 mpaka 12, ine ndi anzanga ambiri tinapeza kuti kukhudzidwa ngati kuyesa mwa kuchita popanda kuganiza ndi kufunafuna mtima kunali kugwirizana kwakukulu kwa zoyambirira za mavuto ndi zoopsa (Romer, Betancourt, Giannetta, Brodsky, Farah, & Hurt, 2009). Monga taonera Chithunzi 3, chitsanzo chokhalira ndi zochitika ziwiri zomwe zimagwirizana ndi chitsanzochi, r = .30) adatha kufotokoza kwathunthu chiyanjano pakati pa makhalidwe oipa (monga khalidwe lotsutsana ndi zizindikiro za ADHD) ndi kutenga chiopsezo (monga monga kumwa mowa, kutchova juga kwa ndalama, kumenyana, ndi kusuta fodya) popanda mgwirizano wofunika kwambiri pakati pa awiriwo. Phunziroli likutsimikizira kufunika kwa mitundu iwiri ya kukhudzidwa kwa maonekedwe oyambirira a khalidwe loopsya ndipo zimagwirizana ndi ziphunzitso zomwe zimagogomezera zazing'ono za ana kuti asatetezedwe monga vuto lachinyamata komanso khalidwe loopsya (Tarter ndi al., 2003; Zucker, 2006).

Chithunzi 3  

Zotsatira za zochitika zowonetsera zimasonyeza kuti kutengeka kumalongosola zomwe zimachitika pangozi ndi makhalidwe olakwika mumsampha wamtundu wa Philadelphia preadolescents (zaka za 10 mpaka 12) (kuchokera Romer, et al., 2009). Njira kuchokera ku makhalidwe ovuta kwa makhalidwe oopsya sanali ...
Pitani ku:

Ntchito Yopanikizika Kwambiri Poyambitsa Ana Kufika Pangozi ya Achinyamata

Umboni wofulumira kuchokera ku ma neuroscience ndi machitidwe abwinobwino umatsimikizira kufunikira kwakudziwonetsa koyambirira kwa opsinjika kwambiri azaumoyo pambuyo pake. Pali umboni wochuluka wosonyeza kuti opanikizika kwambiri, omwe amangokhalira kulamulidwa komanso osalamuliridwa ndi munthu aliyense, amakhala ndi zotsatira "zoyipa" pazotsatira zosiyanasiyana zaumoyo (Shonkoff, Boyce, & McEwen, 2009). Ponena za chiopsezo cha achinyamata, Kuphunzira kwa Ana Ovuta (ACE) Phunziro lochitidwa ndi CDC (Anda et al., 2006; Middlebrooks & Audage, 2008), amasonyeza momwe kuvutikira kwa mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya nkhawa mu ubwana umalosera pambuyo pake zovuta zochitika. Makamaka, zopanikizika zoyambirira monga kuzunzika kwa thupi ndi kumangokhalira kugwiriridwa, kusanyalanyaza maganizo, kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala a makolo, ndi kuwonetsa zachiwawa m'banja zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi zotsatira zowonongeka za achinyamata zomwe zikuphatikizapo kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo, kuledzera, ndi kudzipha. Mnyamata wamkazi, chidziwitso cha kuzunzidwa kwa kugonana chinali chogwirizana kwambiri ndi kuwonetsedwa kwa magwero ena opsinjika maganizo ndipo chinali chogwirizana ndi zaka zoyambirira poyamba kugonana, ndi mimba yosakonzekera. Mwachidziwitso, ma ACE ambiri amachitika, kuwonjezeka kwa khalidwe loopsya muunyamata komanso moyo wotsatira.

Kafufuzidwe ka nsomba ndi makoswe amamvetsetsa momwe zochitika zoyipa zomwe zingayambitse zingabweretse zotsatira za nthawi yaitali pa khalidwe lomwe lingayambe muunyamata. Kafufuzidwe ka Meaney ndi anzake a makoswe amasonyeza kuti kusiyana kwa chisamaliro cha amayi oyambirira kungawononge zotsatira za ana. Mwachitsanzo, majini omwe amachititsa kuti munthu asamapanikizidwe ndi hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) "amatsitsimutsa" zomwe zimawathandiza kuti agwirizane kwambiri ndi nkhawa (Meaney, 2001). Mu khola, amayi omwe sakhala ocheperapo kusamalira ana amakhanda amakhala ndi zotsatira zotere. Zotsatirazi zimawoneka kuti zimayimira pakati pa magawo ochepa a serotonin ogwira ntchito mu hippocampus. Kuwonekeranso kuti zotsatira zake zimakhala zovuta pazomwe amatha kuchita komanso kusamalirana zomwe zimachitika ndi hippocampal ntchito. Izi zimapangitsanso kuchepetsa momwe mungayankhire pa zovuta zomwe zimachitikira ana (Meaney, 2007).

Zotsatira zochititsa chidwi kwambiri za zotsatira za epigenetic ndizokuti ana aakazi omwe ali ndi amayi ochepetsetsa amakhala ndi zofanana ndi ana awo. Pogwiritsira ntchito mapangidwe opatsirana, ndizotheka kudziwa kuti zotsatirazi zimachokera kumagulu osiyanasiyana zinachitikira m'malo mwa majini. Izi ndizochitika kwa amayi omwe amachitira amayi omwe amachititsa zotsatirazi m'malo mobadwa ndi makolo kupita kwa ana.

Zomwe zimachitikira koyambirira kwa anyani zimatulutsanso chimodzimodzi. Kafukufuku wa Suomi ndi anyani a rhesus omwe amaleredwa ndi amayi awo kapena anzawo ocheperako amapeza kuti amuna oleredwa ndi anzawo amawonetsa kuthekera kwakukulu pakunyamata (Suomi, 1997). Pa kafukufuku ndi abulu a rhesus macaque, Maestripieri ndi anzake akufufuza zotsatira za ubongo za amayi omwe amachitiridwa nkhanza komanso kusamalidwa ana (Maestripieri, 2008). Amapezanso kuti vuto lachilombo la amayi likufalikira ndi khalidwe osati ma genetic. Kuonjezera apo, amapeza udindo wapadera wa mgwirizano wa azoonergic umene umawoneka kuti uwonjezere kukhudzidwa kwa ana. Izi zikutanthauza kuti ana omwe amazunzidwa amaonetsa serotonin m'munsi mwa ubongo wa spinal, chizindikiro chomwe chagwirizanitsidwa ndi kuwonjezeka kwa thupi (McCormack, Newman, Higley, Maestripieri, & Sanchez, 2009). Mbali imodzi yosangalatsa ya kafukufukuyu ndi yakuti nthawi yayitali ya serotonin yotengera galimoto imalimbikitsa zotsatira za kuchitiridwa nkhanza za amayi, zomwe zikugwirizana ndi kufufuza kwa anthu omwe amazunzidwa ali ana (Caspi, Sugden, Moffitt, Taylor, Craig, Harrington, et al., 2003).

Kafufuzidwe ndi anthu akuwonetsanso kuti makolo oyambirira amachitiridwa nkhanza akugwirizana ndi mavuto amtsogolo. Kuphunzira kwa nthawi yaitali kwa ana omwe ali ndi chiopsezo chachikulu kuyambira zaka 2 mpaka 8 (Kotch et al., 2008), kunyalanyazidwa kwa makolo asanakwanitse zaka 2 anali kuneneratu khalidwe laukali ali ndi zaka 8. Kenaka kunyalanyaza sikudaneneratu khalidwe laukali ali wamng'ono. Kafukufuku wina wasonyeza kuti zovuta zowonjezereka zokhudzana ndi kupanikizika ndi a HPA zokhudzana ndi kuponderezedwa koyambirira (Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006).

Vuto lina loyesera kufotokozera zapigenetic ndondomeko ya kuwonjezeka kwa HPA kugwirizanitsa ntchito kwa anthu ndikofunikira kuunika minofu ya ubongo. Mu kufufuza kwaposachedwa, McGowan ndi anzake (2009) adafufuza minofu ya hippocampal anthu omwe adafa kapena anafa m'njira zina. Kuphatikizanso apo, anthu omwe anafa ndi kudzipha adasiyanitsa ngati adawazunza kapena kunyalanyaza ngati ana kapena ayi. Malinga ndi kufotokozera kwa epigenetic, anthu omwe anazunzidwa ndi ana ayenera kukhala ndi umboni wochuluka wosonyeza kuti majini amatha kukhala m'madera okhudzidwa, kuphatikizapo hippocampus. Kuwerenga kwawo kunatsimikizira zotsatira zake, motero kupereka umboni woyamba wofanana ndi zotsatira zapigenetic mwa anthu.

Kafukufuku wa Meaney akuwonetsa kuti machitidwe aubereki kwa ana ndichinthu chapanikizika kwa amayi. Amayi omwe amakhala ndi nkhawa yayikulu samachepetsa ana awo obadwa kumene, zomwe zimachitika chifukwa chodziteteza ku chilengedwe. Ngakhale izi zitha kupindulitsa ana mwa njira yakuchulukirachulukira, zitha kukhala zowopsa mwa anthu makamaka zikafika pakusokonezeka kwamakhalidwe ndi zinthu zina zakunja zomwe zimawonjezera chiopsezo chovulala ndi kumangidwa. Mosakayikira, kupsinjika kwakukulu komwe amayi amakumana nako kumatha kuchitika m'malo azachuma komanso momwe kusakhazikika komwe kumayandikira chakudya ndi zina zothandizira kumakhala kovuta kwambiri (Evans & Kim, 2007).

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Kusintha kwa Kutengeka Pakati pa Adolescence

Maphunziro a khalidwe la chiopsezo pa nthawi ya ubwana ndi unyamata amasonyeza kuti kuwonjezera pa kuyambira koyambirira komwe kumapitilira pa unyamata wonse, nthawi zambiri pamakhala mavuto amodzi omwe amayamba msinkhu waunyamata komanso atakula. Moffitt amatchula izi ngati achinyamata omwe ali ndi vuto lochepa chifukwa amayamba kuchepa pamene achinyamata akulowera akuluakulu. Chimodzi mwa magwero akuluakulu a mankhwalawa ndi kukula kwa kufunafuna kumene kumawonekera kuti achinyamata ambiri ali achinyamata. Kuwonjezeka kwa kufunafuna kumagwirizana ndi kuwonjezeka kwa dopamine kwa ventral striatum (Chambers et al., 2003). Nyimbo (2007) apeza izi monga chilengedwe chonse mu ziweto zomwe zikuwoneka kuti zimalimbikitsa nyama yachinyamatayo kuchoka pabanja ndikuyendayenda ndi anzawo kukafufuza malo atsopano ndikusankha okwatirana.

Ife tawona izi zikuwonjezeka pakufunafuna zitsanzo zadziko la unyamata wa zaka 14 mpaka 22 (Romer & Hennessy, 2007) (onani Chithunzi 4). Zomwe zimafunira zimakhala zazikulu kuposa amuna, ndipo amuna amasonyeza kusintha kwa nthawi yaitali mu khalidweli. Pamene anyamata achichepere amakula msinkhu wa zaka 16, anyamata samatha kufika pachimake mpaka zaka za 19. Kuwonjezeka kwa kufunafuna ndikumodzi kwawonetseratu mphamvu ya dopaminergic ya nucleus accumbens, njira yomwe imakwera paunyamata. Kuwonjezeka kwa kufunafuna mwachangu ndi mgwirizano wodabwitsa ndi zaka zina zomwe zimakhala zoopsa, monga kumangidwa chifukwa cha khalidwe loipa ndi kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo (onani Chithunzi 5) poyang'aniridwa ndi Monitoring the Future Study (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2006). Kuwonjezera pamenepo, kusiyana komweku kumagwirizanitsa ndi zizoloŵezi zoopsa za khalidwe la achinyamata komanso akuluakulu (Roberti, 2004; Zuckerman, 1994).

Chithunzi 4  

Zotsatira za kufunafuna msinkhu ku National Annenberg Survey of Youth (otengedwa kuchokera Romer & Hennessy, 2007, ndi chilolezo).
Chithunzi 5  

Zakale zam'madzi zimagwiritsidwa ntchito mowa, chamba, ndi ndudu monga momwe ziliri mu Monitoring the Future Study.

Funso lina lofunika kwambiri lokhudzana ndi kukula kwa chilakolako chofuna kuyima ali mwana ndilo ngati likugwirizana ndi kusowa kwa utsogoleri pa khalidwe monga momwe mitundu ina ya kukhudzika imasonyezera. Umboni ndi wochepa pafunso ili, koma amapatsidwa mgwirizano wochepa koma wofunika pakati pa kufunafuna ndi IQ (Zuckerman, 1994), zikuwoneka kuti anthu omwe amasonyeza mphamvu zowonjezera kufunafuna maulendo amatha kuyendetsa maulamuliro pazochita zawo. Zoonadi, mu phunziro la Philadelphia, tikupeza kuti kusiyana pakati pakufunafuna ndikulumikizana bwino ndi ntchito yogwirira ntchito (Romer, Betancourt, Brodsky, Giannetta, Yang, & Hurt, 2009). Choncho, zikuwoneka kuti chimodzi mwa ziwopsezo zowopsa kwambiri zomwe zimayambitsa ukalamba sichikugwirizana ndi kuchepa kwa ntchito yaikulu.

Kafukufuku waposachedwa ndi Raine ndi anzake (Raine, Moffitt, Caspi, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, & Lynam, 2005) anafufuza ntchito yokhudzana ndi ubongo m'mayesero amtundu wa achinyamata omwe amatsutsana nawo mosagwirizana ndi achinyamata komanso achinyamata omwe ali ochepa komanso osakhumudwitsa. Iwo adapeza zovuta zapakati pa nthawi ndizinthu zotsutsana ndi chikhalidwe cha achinyamata zomwe ziri zogwirizana ndi ntchito yopanda chithandizo cha hyppocampal yomwe imabweretsa chifukwa cha nkhanza za ana. Komabe, achinyamata omwe anangowonetsa pang'ono kuti akutsutsana ndi chikhalidwe chawo pa nthawi ya unyamata anali osiyana ndi achinyamata omwe sali okhumudwitsa pazinthu zochuluka zoganizira.

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Ntchito Yowona Kufuna Kuopsa kwa Achinyamata

Chifukwa cha mphamvu zomwe zimafuna achinyamata kutenga chiopsezo, zimakhala zosangalatsa kudziwa ngati zotsatira zake pa kupanga chisankho zimakhudza njira zosiyanasiyana kuchokera kwa anthu akuluakulu. Mu posachedwapa njira yopangidwa ndi achinyamata, Romer ndi Hennessy (2007) adawonetsa kuti chikoka cha kufunafuna ndikulumikizana ndi njira zomwe zimagwirizanitsa zochita za anthu akuluakulu, zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito poyesa njira zothetsera khalidwe. Makamaka, monga momwe Slovic ndi anzake akuganiziridwa (Finucan, Alhakami, Slovic, & Johnson, 2000; Slovic, Finucane, Peters, & MacGregor, 2002), zomwe zimakhudza zokhudzana ndi zochitika zenizeni ndizowonjezereka komanso zosavuta kupanga chisankho chomwe chimagwirizana ndi zomwe zimakhudza zomwe zimayankhidwa ngati njira yoyenera kuwonetsera mphotho yake. Kuwonjezera apo, kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa chikhalidwe kumayambitsa mgwirizanowu pakati pa malingaliro ndi chiopsezo. Izi ndizomwe zimakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi zomwe mungasankhe.

Kuyanjana pakati pa chiopsezo ndi mphotho ndiko kupotoka ku zitsanzo zabwino zosankha zoyenera kupanga pakupangira zisankho zomwe ziwopsezo ndi mphotho zimayesedwa mwaulere. Zoonadi, zoopsa ndi mphotho sizimagwirizanitsidwa padziko lonse lapansi.Slovic et al., 2002). Komabe, zikuwoneka kuti ndi khalidwe la kupanga chisankho kuti tiyese kugwirizana pakati pa miyeso iwiri yosankha. Kusankha kwachisankhoko kumatipangitsa kukhala ndi zotsutsana za chiweruzo chomwe chimayendetsedwa ndi zotsatira zokhudzana ndi khalidwe. Zinthu zomwe timasangalala nazo zimawoneka ngati zoopsa kwambiri kusiyana ndi zomwe zili zotetezeka koma zosasangalatsa. Choncho, timakonda kuyendetsa galimoto kusiyana ndi kutenga sitimayi ngakhale kuti zonse, nthawi zonse, sitima zimakhala zotetezeka kuposa magalimoto. Komabe, chiphunzitsochi chimamasulira kupanga zophweka kusiyana ndi kulingalira mosamala za zoopsa zonse ndi mphotho zomwe zingafunike.

Kuchokera ku lingaliro la chitukuko cha sayansi, kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa zomwe zimakhudza zowoneka bwino ndi chinthu chochititsa chidwi. Chifukwa zimafunikanso kuchitapo kanthu, zingathe kutsogolera khalidwe popanda kufunika kokambirana bwino. Zotsatira zake, palibe chifukwa chokhulupilira kuti chiyenera kudalira pa kusasitsa mwakuya kwa kayendedwe ka kayendedwe ka chidziwitso pakati paunyamata. Inde, zigawo za PFC zomwe zimagwira ntchito zimakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi kuunika kwa anthu okhwima m'mbuyomo kusiyana ndi zigawo zowonongeka ndi zazing'ono (Fuster, 2002) zomwe ziri zovuta pa ntchito zambiri zapamwamba (Miller & Cohen, 2001). N'zosadabwitsa kuti tikamaphunzira za chiopsezo chotengera khalidwe la achinyamata, timapeza kuti zomwe zimakhudza moyo ndizochita bwino ndikupanga chisankho. Kuwonjezera apo, kugwiritsa ntchito kwake sikukusiyana ndi msinkhu kuyambira zaka zaunyamata (zaka 14) mpaka kukalamba (msinkhu wa 22) (Romer & Hennessy, 2007). Mwachitsanzo, pofufuza zotsatira zomwe zimakhudzana ndi kusuta fodya, kumwa mowa, kusuta chamba, kulandira chigamulo chabwino komanso chiopsezo chachikulu chimagwirizana kwambiri ndipo zimagwirizana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala. Zoonadi, chiweruziro cha mliri sichikuwonjezera kufotokozera kwakukulu kwa kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo kuposa momwe mankhwalawa amakhudzidwira.

Chinthu china chofunika kwambiri cha achinyamata omwe ali ndi chiopsezo chotenga chiopsezo ndi chikoka cha anzako. Monga taonera Chithunzi 6, ofunafuna kukhudzidwa amangoganizira zokhazokha zokhudzana ndi zochitika zatsopano komanso zosangalatsa, amafunanso anzawo omwe ali ndi zofanana. Kusankha kumeneku kumapangitsa kuti anthu azitha kukhala ndi chikhalidwe chomwe sichimangotenga zokhazokha, komabe izi zimapangitsa kuti zikhale zosangalatsa zomwe zimakhudzidwa nazo. Chifukwa achinyamata omwe sagwirizana ndi zofuna zawo amasonkhana pamodzi ndi anzawo ofanana nawo, zotsatira za zofuna zawo zowonjezera zimalimbikitsidwa mwa kuwonetsa ena mwa njira zomwe zimakhudza kusintha. Popeza kuti achinyamata a msinkhu wofananawo amakula mofanana pakufunafuna, zotsatira za anzawo zimakweza chidwi chokhudzidwa ndi zochitika zatsopano komanso zosangalatsa monga kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo. Zotsatira zake, zotsatira za kukhudza khalidwe zimalimbikitsidwa ndi zikoka za anzanu.

Chithunzi 6  

Zotsatira za chitsanzo chowonetsera zomwe zimakhudza momwe polojekiti ndi zogwirizanirana zimakhudzira mgwirizano pakati pa kufunafuna ndi kumwa mowa muunyamata zaka za 14 mpaka 22 (yosinthidwa kuchokera Romer & Hennessy, 2007).

Monga taonera Chithunzi 6, zolemera zomwe zimagwirizanitsa zinthu zomwe zili muchitsanzo zimasonyeza kuti zofuna zonse ndi zofuna za anzanu zimasinthidwa ndikukhudzidwa ndikusintha ndikupanga kusintha kwakukulu mu khalidwe kudzera mu njira iyi kupatula kupyolera mwa anzanu okha. Zonsezi, zimakhudza kufufuza ndi zotsatira za anzako chifukwa cha theka la kusiyana pakati pa fodya, mowa, ndi chamba. Izi zimakhudza zosavuta ku zotsatira za mankhwala. Pofufuza za kulephera kugwiritsira ntchito mabotolo a mipando pamene achinyamata akuyenda mu magalimoto, Dunlop ndi Romer (2009) anapeza kuti pafupi theka la kusintha kwa khalidweli kunakhudzidwa ndi kuwonetsetsa komanso kuyendera anzawo. Zikanakhala choncho, chikoka cha anzako chinali champhamvu kwambiri kusiyana ndi chokhudza yekha.

Zomwe taphunzira zokhudzana ndi zofuna zachinyamata zomwe zimawopsyeza zimasonyeza kuti n'zotheka kufotokozera kuwonjezeka kwa khalidwe loopsya panthawi yaunyamata kuwonjezeka kwa mtundu umenewu. Kuwonjezera pamenepo, njira zogwirira ntchito zomwe zimakhudzidwa ndi kufunafuna zofanana ndi zomwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi akuluakulu. Zoonadi, zomwe zimakhudzidwa ndi chilengedwe zimakhala zochepa chabe ndipo zikhoza kuwoneka kuti zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito kuyambira pachiyambi cha unyamata ngati si kale. Pomalizira, kufunafuna maganizo sikukuwoneka kuti ndikutayika mu ntchito yogwira ntchito monga momwe ziliri ndi zofuna zina. Choncho, pali umboni wochepa wosonyeza kuti kutenga chiopsezo chokhudzidwa ndi kutengeka kwa thupi kumasonyeza kuchepa kwa PFC ubongo.

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Umboni umene tawunikirawu umasonyeza kuti kutenga chiopsezo chachinyamata si chilengedwe chonse komanso kuti kusiyana kulikonse komwe kuli ndi mitundu itatu ya kukhudzidwa ndi khalidweli kumawongolera achinyamata. Kuwonjezera pamenepo, mitundu iwiri yokhala ndi chidwi chokhudzidwa ndi ntchito yofooka yomwe imayesedwa ndi kugwira ntchito komanso kukumbukira ntchito. Komabe, kufunafuna kutengeka sikuwoneka kosiyana kwambiri ndi ntchito izi zogwira ntchito ndipo zitha kukhala zogwirizana ndi kugwira ntchito kukumbukira. Komabe, zimakhalanso zowonongeka kuti kugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi kukumbukira ntchito ndikupitiriza kuchita bwino pakakula (Bunge & Crone, 2009; Mtsuko, 2009; Williams, Ponesse, Shachar, Logan, & Tannock, 1999). Kodi kusintha kotereku kukuwonetseratu kusintha kwa ubongo komwe kumapangitsa kuti achinyamata asamangodziwa zomwe zimachitika pa chiopsezo?

Palibe umboni wowonongeka wochirikiza mgwirizano pakati pa kusamba kwa chilengedwe mu ubongo pa nthawi ya unyamata komanso khalidwe lopanda nzeru. Izi ndi chifukwa chakuti n'zovuta kuyang'ana kusintha kwa ubongo zomwe zingakhale zovuta kuchita. Monga taonera Galvan et al., 2006:

Maphunziro a Neuroimaging sangathe kutanthauzira momwe zimakhalira kusintha kwachitukuko (mwachitsanzo, synaptic kudulira, kuyerekezera). Komabe, kusintha kwakukulu ndi kayendedwe kake kameneko kungawonetse kukonzanso ndikukonzekera bwino momwe zigawozi zimagwirira ntchito (PFC ndi striatum) panthawi ya kusamba. Kotero, kutanthauzira uku ndi kungopeka chabe. (6885)

Lu ndi Sowell (2009) Werenganinso zomwe zimadziwika pokhudzana ndi kusintha pakati pa ubongo pa nthawi yopititsa patsogolo komanso ntchito zoganizira komanso zamagalimoto. Kuphatikizira kwawo sikupereka umboni wochuluka wokhudzana ndi lingaliro lakuti kupukuta kwa cortical kuganizira za kudulira kwa syntaptic kumapangitsa kuti azidziŵa bwino ntchito. Mwachitsanzo, kugwira IQ nthawi zonse, Sowell ndi anzake (2004) anapeza kuti kuperewera kwa khungu kuchokera ku zaka 5 mpaka 11 kunagwirizanitsidwa ndi kusintha kwakukulu kwa mawu, zotsatira zomwe zingawoneke kuti zimayendetsedwa ndi kuphunzira osati kusakaniza ubongo. Mu kafukufuku wofufuzira kusintha kwa ma cortical kuyambira zaka 7 mpaka 19 monga ntchito ya magawo osiyanasiyana a IQ, Shaw ndi anzake (2006) anapeza kuti anthu omwe ali ndi IQ apamwamba anayamba njira yowonda Patatha kuposa omwe ali ndi IQ yachibadwa. Ngati kupweteka kwa khungu kukuthandizani kukula kwa luso la kuzindikira, ndiye wina angayembekezere kuti lichitike kale kwa omwe ali ndi IQ apamwamba. Pomalizira, m'madera okhudzana ndi luso lachilankhulo (peri-Sylvan inachoka kudziko), cortical kuphulika M'malo mochepetsetsa akugwirizana ndi chitukuko chowonjezera cha chilankhulo (Lu, Leonard, & Thompson, 2007). Choncho, kupweteka kwa cortical sikukuwonetseratu chitukuko cha luso kudera lonse la cortex.

Ponena za kusintha kwa nkhani yoyera, Berns, Moore, & Capra (2009) anafufuza mgwirizano pakati pa kudzipatulira mu PFC ndi kuika chiopsezo m'zaka zaunyamata kuyambira 12 mpaka 18. Pokhala ndi msinkhu wokhazikika, iwo adapeza kuti chiopsezo chotenga zizoloŵezi chinali zabwino chogwirizana ndi chitukuko choyera. Mogwirizana ndi kupeza izi, DeBellis ndi anzake (2008) anapeza kuti kulumikizidwa kwa corpus callosum kunali msinkhu wopitirira unyamata ali ndi vuto la mowa kuposa polamulira achinyamata popanda zinthu zoterezi. Choncho, umboni wothandizira kuchepa kwa PFC kusamalidwa ngati chiwopsezo cha khalidwe lachinyamata m'mabwana sikuti kulipo komanso kumatsutsana ndi zomwe zingachitike.

Mwa kufotokoza mwachidule kufufuza uku, Lu ndi Sowell (2009) ananena kuti:

Zolumikizana pakati pa morphological ndi luso la kusasitsa, ngakhale kuti limaphunzitsa, limasonyeza mabungwe okhaokha ndipo silingathe kuwonetsa zochitika. Sayansi ya sayansi iyenera kudalirika pa maphunziro a nyama pogwiritsa ntchito zojambula zoyesayesa kuti mudziwe ngati kusungunuka kwa morphological kumapangitsa kupeza maluso kapena ngati maluso a kupeza maluso morphological. (19)

Ofufuza ena ayesa kuona kusiyana pakati pa ubongo pamene akupanga zisankho zoopsa zomwe zingathandize kuzindikira kusiyana kwa zaka mu ubongo. Kafukufukuyu agwiritsira ntchito maginito opanga maginito (fMRI) a anthu osiyanasiyana kuyambira msinkhu kufika pokhala achikulire pomwe akugwira ntchito zosiyanasiyana. Komabe, zotsatira zokhudzana ndi kutsegulidwa kwa PFC sizinapereke chithunzi cha momwe polojekiti ya PFC ikugwirizanirana ndi kupanga chisankho choopsa.

Zotsutsana ndi ziphunzitso zomwe zimati zowonjezera zowonjezereka zimatengera nthawi yaunyamata ndi kufunafuna maganizo (Chambers et al., 2003), Galvan et al. (2006) anapeza kuti achinyamata (zaka za 13 ku 17) akuwonetsa kukula kwakukulu kwa khungu kakang'ono kuposa zaka (zaka 7 kwa 11) kapena anthu akuluakulu (zaka za 23 mpaka 29) pamene akuyembekeza mphotho. Komabe, achinyamata sankasiyana ndi akuluakulu omwe ali ndi chiwerengero chofanana chokhazikitsa (ORC). Ana amasonyeza yankho lamphamvu kuposa achinyamata kapena akuluakulu. Zotsatirazi zinali zovuta kutanthauzira, komabe, zinaperekedwa kugwiritsa ntchito mphoto yomwe ingakhale yosiyana kwambiri ndi chisangalalo ndi chidwi monga ntchito ya msinkhu (chithunzi cha pirate wokongola mosiyana).

Pofufuza mwatsatanetsatane za kuyambitsa ubongo, Eshel, Nelson, Blair, Pine, & Ernst (2007) anafufuzanso zigawo zosiyanasiyana za ubongo asanakwane achinyamata (zaka za 9 mpaka 17) ndi achinyamata kwa akuluakulu (zaka za 20 mpaka 40) pamene akusankha pakati pa zosankha zomwe zinali zoopsa. Kuyerekeza kwakukulu kunali pakati pa zosankha zomwe zinali ndi zowonjezereka za mphotho za zotsatira zazing'ono zachuma poyerekeza ndi zomwe zinali ndi zochepa zochepa za mphotho chifukwa cha zotsatira zazikulu. Mu chisankho chogwiritsidwa ntchito chosangalatsa, ochita kafukufuku sanasunge zikhalidwe zoyenera za mitundu iwiri yosankha. Kusankha njira yowopsya nthawizonse kunali kovuta kwambiri poyerekeza ndi njira zochepetsera zocheperako. Iwo adapeza kuti anthu achikulire atsegula otsogolera OFC molimbika kwambiri kuposa achinyamata pamene anasankha njira yosokoneza. Kufufuza kumeneku kunatengedwa monga umboni wakuti PFC ikugwira ntchito kwa anthu akuluakulu. Njira ina ndiyokutanthauzira kuti anthu achikulire amawonetsa kwambiri mphamvu ya PFC kusiyana ndi achinyamata pamene akusankha zosayenera. Mwachiwonekere, phunziro ili silinatsimikizire kuti kulimbana kwakukulu kwa akuluakulu.

Kufufuza kwatsopano kwa izi ndi maphunziro ena ambiri pogwiritsa ntchito fMRI kuti azindikire kusiyana kwa ubongo m'magulu osiyanasiyana, Ernst ndi Hardin (2009) ananena kuti:

Cholinga cha kufotokoza zovuta za chitukuko chowonjezereka chikuwonjezereka zovuta za kafukufukuyu ndipo zimafuna zitsanzo zophunzitsira kuti zisawononge maganizo ndi kutsogolera chitukuko cha paradigms zowonetsera kuti zikhale zoyendetsa bwino. (69-70)

Chodetsa nkhaŵa chotsutsana ndi zolakwika ndizofunikira kwambiri poyerekeza ndi zaka zosiyana siyana zomwe sizikusiyana kokha mu ubongo komanso zochitika. Chifukwa cha nkhawa zomwe zatchulidwa Lu ndi Sowell (2009), zingawoneke zovuta kusokoneza zotsatira za zochitika pa ubongo kuchokera ku maonekedwe a morphologic osatengera kuphunzira.

Njira inanso yomwe yanena Bunge ndi Crone (2009) ndi kusiyanitsa achinyamata kuti azichita masewera olimbitsa thupi. Ngati maphunziro oyenerera angapange chisankho chabwino kwa achinyamata, amatsutsana ndi kusakaniza msangamsanga, zomwe zinganeneratu kuti maphunziro sangakhale oyenerera pakakhala kusakwanira kwa ubongo wokwanira. Chifukwa chakuti kafukufuku wokhudzidwa ndi zochitika ndizowonjezera kumvetsetsa kwathu kwa gawo la kutseketsa kwa morphological ndi chitsimikizo, ndi kufufuza koteroko kumene ife tikusintha tsopano.

Pitani ku:

Umboni Wotsatira Zotsatira za Kuchita Zopanda Phindu

Chifukwa cha maulosi amphamvu kwambiri okhudzana ndi kuchepa kwa ubongo pa nthawi ya unyamata, ndizosangalatsa kudziwa ngati odziwa angathe kuthana ndi zofooka zoterezi. Makamaka, atapatsidwa udindo wofunika kwambiri womwe umakhudzidwa ndi chiopsezo cha achinyamata, kodi pali umboni uliwonse wosonyeza kuti chidziwitso chingasinthe mtundu uliwonse wa chilakolako? Apa pali umboni woonekeratu: Pali zitsanzo zambiri za zomwe zingasinthe ubongo kumagwira ntchito kuti kukhudzidwa ndi kuikapo pangozi kumachepetsedwa. Pokumbukira njirazi, ndizothandiza kusiyanitsa pakati pa zomwe zimaperekedwa ali mwana potsata zomwe zasintha pakapita zaka. Njira zothandizira ana ziyenera kuthandizira kupewa zofuna zapamwamba zomwe zikupitirira ukadali wachinyamata ngati sizinasamalidwe. Njira zothandizira achinyamata zitha kuthana ndi kuwonjezeka kwa kufunafuna ndi zofuna zina zomwe zimawonekera pazaka khumi za moyo.

Ntchito Zoyamba

Pali mitundu iwiri yowonetsera mofulumira yomwe yayesedwa bwino. Chimodzi chimaphatikizapo kuthandizana ndi makolo omwe ali pachiopsezo chozunza ana awo ndipo potero amapewa zotsatira zovuta za mankhwalawa kwa ana. Wina ndikuyenera kuchitapo kanthu mtsogolo pamodzi ndi mabanja ndi ana pamodzi kapena ndi ana kusukulu.

Chimodzi mwa mapulogalamu othandiza kwambiri oyambirira ndi makolo ndi ndondomeko ya maulendo ochiritsira omwe amapangidwa ndi David Olds ndi anzake (1998). Pulogalamuyi imaphatikizapo kuyendera kholo loyembekezera asanabadwe komanso kupereka maphunziro kuti athe kuthana ndi zovuta zomwe zingachititse kuti mwanayo asakhale ndi moyo wabwino. Monga momwe amayembekezeredwa ndi kafukufuku mwachidule, makolo omwe akukumana ndi mavuto angapereke chithandizo ichi kwa ana awo ngati chithandizo chocheperapo. Chithandizochi chimatha kubweretsa ubongo wosagwirizana bwino kwa ana, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti asamapangidwe bwino kusukulu komanso akadzakula. Komabe, kuthandizidwa ndi makolo pa nthawi yocheza ndi makolo omwe ali ndi chiopsezo chachikulu kumathandiza kuti athe kupirira bwino ndi zovuta komanso kuchepetsa chizolowezi chodandaulira ana. Maphunziro a pulogalamuyi amasonyeza kuti ana amachita bwino kusukulu ndipo amawona zizindikiro zochepa za matenda a m'maganizo, kuphatikizapo matenda osokoneza bongo. Kuonjezera apo, makolo amasonyeza khalidwe labwino pamene ana awo akukula (Izzo, Eckenrode, Smith, Henderson, Cole, Kitzman, et al., 2005). Pulojekitiyi yakhala ikukhudzidwa ndi thandizo la federal chifukwa chapambana kukaniza zotsatira zovuta kwa ana komanso kuchepetsa kuchepa kwa panthawi ya kusukulu, kundende, ndi chithandizo cha umoyo.

Kuphatikiza pakulowererapo ndi makolo adakali mwana, pali umboni wochulukirapo wosonyeza kuti mitundu ina yamaphunziro koyambirira imatha kukhala ndi zotsatira zoyipa pamakhalidwe, makamaka pazotsatira zamaphunziro ndi machitidwe ena akunja. Mwachitsanzo, kuwunika kwamapulogalamu oyambira kusukulu (A. Reynolds & Temple, 2008), monga Pulogalamu yapamwamba / yapamwamba ya Perry Project ndi Programme ya Chicago-Child-Parent Programme imasonyeza kuti njira zoterezi zimapindulitsa kwambiri maphunziro, kusunga ana kusukulu, ndi kuchepetsa makhalidwe a achinyamata omwe amapezeka m'ndende. Mapulogalamuwa amawoneka kuti amachititsa kuti azidziŵa zamaganizo ndi khalidwe lawo, monga kupirira kwakukulu ndi kudziletsa komwe kumakhudzana ndi kukhudzidwa.

Mu kafukufuku waposachedwapa ndi Diamondi ndi anzako (Daimondi, Barnett, Thomas, & Munro, 2007), ochita kafukufuku adatha kuphunzitsa luso la ana a sukulu zomwe zimakhudza ntchito zapamwamba kwambiri zokhudzana ndi maphunziro ndi zovuta zowonjezera, monga ADHD ndikuyambitsa mavuto. Malusowa apezeka kuti amagwirizanitsidwa ndi ntchito zosiyanasiyana za PFC zomwe zimawongolera khalidwe labwino, monga kuthekera kugwiritsira ntchito malingaliro pogwira ntchito kukumbukira ndi kuchepetsa kusokonezeka kwa osokoneza.

Kafukufuku wina ndi ana m'zaka zoyambira akuwonetsa kuti njira zowongolera kuphunzitsidwa zitha kuphunzitsidwa zomwe zimathandizira magwiridwe antchito ndikuchepetsa chidwi (Barry, & Welsh, 2007; Ma Riggs, Greenberg, Kusche, & Pentz, 2006). Pulogalamu imodzi yomwe ili ndi deta yotsatira yotsatira ndiyo masewera abwino a khalidwe (Petras, Kellam, Brown, Muthen, Ialongo, & Poduska, 2008). Kellam ndi anzake adayesa pulogalamuyi mu makalasi ochepa omwe amapeza ndalama zoyambirira komanso zachiwiri zomwe aphunzitsi anaphunzitsidwa kuti aziwathandiza kukhala ndi makhalidwe abwino ku sukulu zonse. Mphoto zinaperekedwa pafupipafupi kuti athe kuchepetsa makhalidwe okhumudwitsa, kuonjezera mgwirizano, komanso kuwonjezera kuntchito. Zotsatira zamakono zaka 19 mpaka 21 zinawonetsa zotsatira zodalirika kwambiri kwa iwo amene adawonetsa chiwerengero chachikulu cha khalidwe laukali ndi losalamulirika asanayambe kulowerera. Makamaka, mitengo ya anti-social personality disorder inakhalabe yocheperapo pa achinyamata omwe ali pangozi kwambiri potsatira.

Sitiyenera kuiwalika kuti mankhwala athandizidwa kuti athe kuthandiza kuchepetsa zizindikiro zosonyeza kuti ali ndi ADHD. Klingberg (2009) akuwonetsa kuti kuchuluka kwa maselo olimbitsa thupi kungathandize kuti ogwira ntchito azigwira bwino ntchito komanso akumbukira makamaka ana omwe akudwala ADHD ndipo potero amapititsa patsogolo maphunziro awo. Palinso umboni wakuti kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwalawa kungachepetse mwayi wa kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo m'zaka zaunyamata (Wilens, Faraone, Biederman, & Gunawardene, 2003). Klingberg ndi anzanu (2005) athandizanso pulogalamu ya ana omwe ali ndi ADHD omwe angathe kusintha ntchito kukumbukira ndikuchepetsa zizindikiro za ADHD pogwiritsa ntchito makompyuta. Opeza ndi anzanu (Rueda, Rothbart, McCandliss, Saccamanno, & Posner, 2005) adayankha ndi kuyesa njira zomwezo kwa ana omwe ali ndi mavuto.

Mwachidule, kafufuzidwe kapangidwe koyambirira kumasonyeza kuti kuphunzitsa kwakukulu kumagwira ntchito zogwira ntchito komanso kudziletsa kungachepetse zizoloŵezi zomwe zingasokoneze ntchito kusukulu ndipo zimayambitsa mavuto omwe alipo msinkhu. Njira izi sizikanatheka kuti zinthu ziziyenda bwino ngati ubongo wamakono utangoyamba msinkhu unalepheretsa kusintha kwabwino kuti pakhale chiwopsezo chofunafuna kapena chiopsezo china.

Zotsatira Zotsatira

Kuperewera kwa malo kumalepheretsa kuwunikiridwa mwatsatanetsatane wazaka zaunyamata. Komabe, pali umboni wochuluka wosonyeza kuti achinyamata atha kuphunzira kupewa zovuta, makamaka ngati atapatsidwa chidziwitso chokhudzana ndi zomwe amachita. Mwachitsanzo, kutsatira mwatsatanetsatane kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo kuyambira 1974 mu Monitoring the future Study kukuwonetsa kuti chimodzi mwazomwe zimaneneratu za momwe munthu angagwiritsire ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo ndikuganiza kuti mankhwalawo ndi owopsa ku thanzi la munthu (Bachman, Johnston, & O'Malley, 1998). Zolinga zamalonda sizithekera nthawi zonse pofalitsa uthengawu mogwira mtima. Mwachitsanzo, njira zina zamalonda zomwe zimathandizidwa ndi boma zafalitsa uthenga umene achinyamata ambiri akugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo, uthenga umene ukhoza kuwonetsa kuti anzawo amapeza mankhwala osangalatsa (Fishbein, Hall-Jamieson, Zimmer, von Haeften, & Nabi, 2002; Hornik, Jacobsohn, Orwin, Piesse, & Kalton, 2008). Monga tanenera kale, malingaliro amenewa angapangitse kuti anthu ayambe kugwiritsira ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo.

Chitsanzo chabwino cha njira yomwe ingathandizire kupewa zovuta pakuchita khalidwe lachidziwitso ndi ndondomeko ya madalaivala yomwe yatsimikizidwa ndi mayiko ambiri ku US Njira iyi ikuchokera pa lingaliro lakuti kuyendetsa galimoto ndi khalidwe lovuta lomwe limatengera mwayi mbuye. Monga taonera Chithunzi 7, madalaivala achichepere amakhudzidwa kwambiri pa ngozi pambuyo poyendetsa pafupifupi 1000 mailosi (miyezi isanu ndi umodzi) (McCartt, Shabanova, & Leaf, 2003). Ngati chizoloŵezi choyambirira chophunzira chikhoza kukwaniritsidwa pazirombo zochepa, zikhoza kuchepetsa mwayi wa zotsatira zoopsa mpaka kugonjetsa khalidweli kwapindula. Njira yothandizira maulosi omaliza maphunzirowa yasankhidwa ndi mayiko ambiri. Mwa njirayi, achinyamata samapatsidwa chilolezo chokwanira mpaka atatha nthawi yoyesera yomwe sangathe kuyendetsa usiku ndipo ayenera kuyendetsa ndi wamkulu. Umboni wosonyeza kuti njirayi ikugwira bwino ntchito imasonyeza kuti imachepetsa chiwerengero cha kuwonongeka ndi kuvulala kwakukulu ndipo amachita zimenezi mwachindunji ku chiwerengero cha zoletsedwa m'malo.Morrissey, Grabowski, Dee, & Campbell, 2006).

Chithunzi 7  

Zotsatira za kuwonongeka kwa galimoto pakati pa madalaivala achichepere ngati ntchito yamakilomita amayendetsa zimasonyeza kuti kuwonongeka kumachepa kwambiri pambuyo pa ma 1000 mailosi a kuyendetsa galimoto (yolembedwanso ndi chilolezo kuchokera McCartt et al., 2003).

Mu kafukufuku waposachedwapa za zotsatira zokhudzidwa pakati pa zaka zachinyamata komanso zaka zoyambirira (14 mpaka 22), anzanga ndi ine tinapeza kuti chiopsezo chotenga chiopsezo chotenga chiopsezo cha kuchepa mtima monga kuchepetsa kuchepetsa kuchepetsa ntchito (Romer et al., 2010). Kusangalala kwambiri kufunafuna achinyamata omwe amagwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo kusiyana ndi momwe achinyamata ena amasonyezera kuchepa mtima pamene akukalamba. Kuchepetsa kumeneku kumapangitsanso kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo. Achinyamata ena samakonda kusonyeza kusinthika pa nthawi yaunyamata. Zomwe akupezazi zikusonyeza kuti zomwe adazipeza poika chiopsezo chowopsa zimathandiza okonda kwambiri kufuna kukhala ndi chipiriro chachikulu, chomwe chimachepetsa kutenga chiopsezo. Kafufuzidwe ndi achinyamata omwe ali osokonezeka amasonyezanso kuti kuleza mtima kumachepetsa kwambiri achinyamata omwewo kusiyana ndi ena (Turner & Piquero, 2002). Choncho, ngakhale kuti ali ndi chiopsezo chachikulu, kufunafuna achinyamata kumaphunzira kuchokera ku zotsatira za khalidwe lawo ndipo pamapeto pake sakhala oleza mtima kusiyana ndi anzawo omwe sali oopsa. Cholinga cha kafukufuku wamasulidwe amtsogolo ndicho kuzindikira njira zomwe achinyamata angapange kuti asinthe ndikukhala achikulire komanso powateteza ku zotsatira zovuta zomwe zingawononge moyo wawo wautali ndi chitukuko.

Monga ananenera Nyimbo (2009),

Zochitika zomwe zikuchitika panthawi yaunyamata zingathandize kupanga ubongo wokhwima mofanana ndi zochitikazo. Malinga ndi mmene zinthu zilili, nthawi yawo, komanso zotsatira zake, ubongo umenewu ukhoza kuwonedwa ngati mwayi, komanso kuwonongeka. (308).

Kafukufuku wamtsogolo ayenera kuthandizira kusokoneza zotsatira zokhudzana ndi chidziwitso ndi kusakaniza ubongo. Monga tanenera kale, kafukufuku omwe amafufuza kusakaniza kwa ubongo ndi kugwira ntchito pamodzi ndi mapulogalamu omwe amapangitsa kuti azidziŵa bwino maluso komanso makhalidwe awo (mwachitsanzo, kugwira ntchito kukumbukira) ayenera kuzindikira udindo wawo pamasinkhu osiyana siyana. Kafukufukuyu athandizidwe popanga masewero olimbitsa thupi omwe angapatse achinyamata achinyamata zomwe akumana nazo panthawi imodzimodziyo kuti athe kuchepetsa zoopsa zomwe akukumana nazo ngati atasiya njira zawo.

Pitani ku:

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